Glossary
abdominal obesity excessive fat distributed around the stomach and abdomen; the most often used measure of abdominal obesity is waist size; abdominal obesity in women is a waist size 35 inches or higher, and in men it is a waist size of 40 inches or higher.
absorption the process by which nutrients and other substances are removed from the lumen of the gastrointestinal tract to enter the bloodstream or lymphatic system.
Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Range (AMDR) the range of energy intakes that should come from each macronutrient to provide a balanced diet.
acesulfame K a non-
acid-
acid reflux the regurgitation of acid content from the stomach into the esophagus; characterized by a burning feeling in the chest called heartburn.
active transport the energy-
activity energy expenditure (AEE) the amount of energy expended in physical activity per day.
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) the primary energy currency of our cells; a molecule composed of adenosine and three phosphate groups; when cells require energy, the bond between the last two phosphates is broken, releasing the stored energy and forming adenosine diphosphate.
adequacy an aspect of healthy eating; consuming foods that provide the calories and essential nutrients necessary to maintain and promote optimal health.
Adequate Intake (AI) nutrients for which the available data are not sufficient to confidently determine an EAR; often the best estimate of the amount that is adequate to meet the needs of the majority of the population based on available data.
aerobic pertaining to, or requiring oxygen (O2).
air displacement a method of determining body composition; assesses a person’s body volume and density.
alcohol a potentially intoxicating ingredient, produced through fermentation, found in beer, wine, and liquor; drinking alcohol is in the form of ethyl alcohol, or ethanol; it can be considered a food because it provides energy, but it also has druglike effects, acting as a central nervous system depressant.
alcohol use disorder a medical diagnosis given to individuals who exhibit severe problems with alcohol and meet specific diagnostic criteria.
allergen an antigen that, when exposed to the body, stimulates an abnormal immune response.
alveoli small sacs in the breasts in which milk is produced.
amenorrhea an abnormal absence of menstruation, often due to low energy intake.
amino acid a molecule containing a central carbon atom, an amino group that contains an atom of nitrogen; an acid group, a hydrogen atom, and a side chain. Only the side chain differs for each amino acid, giving each its unique properties.
amylases enzymes that break down starch into smaller polysaccharides and disaccharides.
anabolism a process of building body muscle and tissue in which complex molecules are made from simpler ones, usually requiring energy.
anaerobic occurring in the absence of oxygen.
anaphylaxis a massive immune response to an allergen that causes swelling, changes in blood pressure, and dilated blood vessels in oversensitive individuals and can result in death.
anaphylactic shock a condition caused by decreased oxygen supply to the heart and other body tissues, and by vasodilation as a result of a heightened immune response to an allergen.
antibodies proteins found in blood that are produced in response to foreign substances, such as bacteria, viruses, and allergens, that have entered the body.
anticoagulants medications that prevent blood clotting.
antidiuretic hormone (ADH) a peptide hormone produced by the hypothalamus, with the primary function of decreasing the amount of water excreted by the kidneys; it is stored in and released from the posterior pituitary gland.
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antioxidant a substance that prevents damage to cells by inhibiting the oxidation caused by free radicals. An antioxidant gives electrons to other substances and can therefore stabilize or deactivate free radicals.
appetite a desire for food for reasons other than, or in addition to, hunger.
atherosclerosis a type of cardiovascular disease characterized by the narrowing and loss of elasticity of blood vessel walls; it is caused by accumulation of plaque and inflammation of tissue.
ascorbic acid also known as vitamin C; it acts as a coenzyme in biological reactions, aids in hormone production, and is involved in the synthesis of collagen.
aspartame a non-
B vitamins a group of water-
balance an aspect of healthy eating that includes choosing the correct proportions of foods from each of the food groups and the appropriate amounts of calories, macronutrients, vitamins, and minerals.
Bacillus cereus a bacterium; one of the leading causes of foodborne illness in the United States; it produces a heat-
basal metabolic rate the amount of energy expended in basal metabolism over a fixed period of time, typically expressed as kcal per day.
basal metabolism the energy expenditure required to maintain the essential functions that sustain life.
beriberi a condition caused by thiamin deficiency, which is characterized by extreme weakness, muscle wasting, and eventual heart failure.
beta-
bile a fluid produced in the liver, concentrated and stored in the gallbladder, and secreted into the small intestine in response to food present in stomach; bile promotes the digestion of fat by emulsifying it, which allows lipase easier access.
binders dietary elements, such as phytates and oxalates, that limit bioavailability of other nutrients by chemically binding to minerals.
binge drinking a pattern of alcohol consumption that brings blood alcohol concentration to 0.08% or higher; this typically corresponds to about five or more drinks on a single occasion for men or four or more for women, within a two-
binge eating disorder a condition characterized by recurring episodes of eating significantly more food in a short period than most people would eat under similar circumstances, accompanied by feelings of lack of control.
bioavailability the degree to which nutrients can be absorbed and utilized by the body; bioavailability is influenced by many factors, including physiological and dietary conditions.
bioelectrical impedance a method of determining body composition that uses electrical currents to determine body fat content.
blind or blinded study a study in which the researchers or the research subjects (or both) are unaware of whether an intervention or treatment is received until the study is concluded.
blood alcohol concentration (BAC) the percentage of alcohol in blood that is used as a measure of the degree of intoxication of an individual.
body image the way a person perceives their body size, shape, or overall appearance.
body mass index (BMI) an indirect measure of body fat calculated from a person’s weight and height.
bolus a masticated, round lump of food, lubricated in the mouth by mixing with saliva.
bone remodeling the process of continuous bone breakdown and rebuilding, which is required for bone maintenance and repair.
bran the section of a whole grain that contains the majority of dietary fiber and a significant amount of B vitamins and minerals.
brush border name for the microvilli-
built environment the aspects of our surroundings that are designed by humans including buildings, transportation systems, and green spaces.
bulimia nervosa a condition characterized by frequent episodes of binge eating followed by purging behaviors to avoid weight gain; purging may occur as vomiting, use of laxatives, or excessive exercise.
caffeine a central nervous system stimulant that has been shown to improve performance in almost all high-
calcitriol the active hormonal form of vitamin D that increases the absorption of calcium in the gastrointestinal tract.
calcium the most abundant mineral in the body; 99% is found in the bones and teeth, while the other 1% is located in body cells and fluids, where it is necessary for functions such as blood clotting, nerve transmission, and muscle contraction.
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calcium homeostasis the balance between the actions of parathyroid hormone, vitamin D, and the kidneys to tightly control serum calcium levels.
calorie a unit of measure defined as the energy required to raise one gram of water 1° Celsius.
cancer a group of conditions that result from the uncontrolled growth or division of abnormal cells that invade a part or parts of the body.
carbohydrates compounds made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms that are found in foods as either simple sugars or complex carbohydrates; they contain four kilocalories of energy per gram.
carbohydrate loading a technique employed by endurance athletes that involves consuming 10–
carbon skeleton a chain of carbon atoms that form the backbone of an organic molecule.
carboxyl group the acid group attached to one end of a fatty acid chain.
carbohydrate counting a method to track carbohydrates consumed so that those with diabetes can appropriately balance physical activity and medication to manage blood glucose levels.
cardiorespiratory activities activities that increase the heart rate and promote increased use of oxygen to improve overall body condition and endurance.
cardiovascular disease (CVD) a group of conditions that impair the heart, arteries, veins, and capillaries.
carotenoids compounds—
catabolism the breakdown of large molecules, such as protein, fat, and glycogen, into smaller ones, causing a loss of skeletal muscle mass.
cells the smallest functional unit of living organisms.
chemical digestion digestion that involves enzymes and other chemical substances released from salivary glands, stomach, pancreas, and gallbladder.
chloride a mineral that is an electrolyte involved in fluid balance; it is often found in table salt (NaCL).
cholecystokinin (CCK) a hormone released from the small intestine in response to dietary fats and proteins in the small intestine; it stimulates the gallbladder to release bile and the pancreas to secrete juice into the lumen of the small intestine.
cholesterol a sterol that is produced by the body; it is a critical component of our cell membranes and is also needed as a precursor for the synthesis of bile acids, vitamin D, and steroid hormones such as estrogen and testosterone.
choline an essential nutrient and water-
chromium a trace mineral; its role in the body is not well understood.
chronic disease diseases that are generally slow in progression and of long duration; some examples include heart disease and diabetes.
chylomicron a very large lipoprotein that transports triglycerides and other dietary lipids away from the small intestine, first in the lymph and then in the blood.
chyme semi-
circulatory system a system made up of veins, arteries, capillaries, heart and lymphatic vessels; responsible for movement of blood and lymph throughout the body.
cobalamin also known as vitamin B12; it acts as a coenzyme in deriving energy from amino acids, as well as in the reactions involving folate and the conversion of homocysteine to methionine.
coenzyme a compound that binds to a protein (enzyme) and is required for its function or activity.
cofactor a nonprotein chemical compound that activates and assists enzymatic reactions.
complementary proteins two or more incomplete protein sources that together provide adequate amounts and proportions of all the essential amino acids; examples include beans and grains, or beans and nuts.
complete protein a food source that contains all nine essential amino acids in the appropriate proportions.
constipation difficulty, or reduced frequency, of stool passage through intestines.
control group the group in a scientific experiment that does not receive the experimental treatment.
copper a trace mineral that functions as a co-
creatine phosphate (phosphocreatine) a compound that transfers its phosphate and stored energy to ADP to make more ATP; also known as phosphocreatine.
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cretinism a condition characterized by mental retardation, deafness and muteness, stunted growth, delayed sexual maturation, and other abnormalities; it can be caused by severe iodine deprivation during fetal growth.
critical periods developmental events occurring during the first trimester of pregnancy in which cells differentiate and organs and vital systems begin to develop; disruption of growth or development during a critical period may be irreversible.
cross-
curcumin a polyphenol found in turmeric spice; it may have antioxidant and anti-
cytosol the intracellular fluid of the cell outside the mitochondria.
DASH diet also known as Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension; a food plan that assists with blood pressure control by moderating sodium intake while increasing the intake of potassium, calcium, and magnesium.
denaturation the process by which the shape of a protein is altered; this can be caused by exposure to heat, light, acid, or chemical reaction.
delayed cord clamping the practice of delaying the severance of the umbilical cord by at least a minute after birth; it provides many health benefits, such as increasing the newborn’s stores of iron.
dehydration water deficiency resulting from fluid losses that exceed intake.
dental caries also called cavities or tooth decay; the progressive destruction of tooth enamel and ultimately the tooth itself through the action of bacteria on carbohydrates in the mouth.
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) nucleic acid that stores the body’s genetic information; it is made of a double strand of nucleotide subunits.
diarrhea loose, watery stools on more than three occasions in a 24-
dietary fat compound found in plant and animal foods that is an energy source, and is necessary for absorption and transport of fat-
dietary fiber naturally occurring carbohydrates and lignin from plants that either cannot be digested in the intestinal tract or for which digestion is delayed.
dietary folate equivalent (DFE) a system established to account for the differences in bioavailability between folic acid in dietary supplements and the folate found in food.
Dietary Guidelines for Americans (DGAs) national health guidelines developed by the United States Department of Agriculture and the Department of Health and Human Services that provide information and advice, based on the newest scientific evidence, on how to choose a healthy eating plan.
Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI) quantitative reference values for vitamins, minerals, macronutrients, and energy that are used to assess and plan the diets of healthy people in the United States and Canada.
dietary supplement a food or substance that supplements the diet and contains one or more dietary ingredients or their constituents, including vitamins, minerals, herbs, amino acids, and certain other substances.
digestion the process of breaking food down to its smallest units in order for the nutrients to be absorbed and used by the body.
digestive system the system responsible for digestion, made up of digestive tract (mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine and large intestine), and accessory organs (salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas).
dipeptide an amino acid chain that contains two amino acids.
disaccharide a carbohydrate that consists of two sugar molecules; examples include maltose, sucrose, and lactose.
diverticular disease condition in which there are small pouches or pockets in the wall or lining of the colon; a single pouch is called a diverticulum.
docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) a 22-
duodenum the first portion of the small intestine after the stomach.
dual energy x-
eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) a 20-
E. coli a common form of bacteria, found in the intestines of many animals; certain strains are especially toxic and cause severe illness.
eating disorder an unhealthy and abnormal relationship with food and weight that threatens health and interferes with many areas of a person’s life.
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electrolytes electrically charged minerals (ions) dissolved in body fluids that balance the fluid outside the cells with the fluid inside the cells; electrolyte balance is necessary for the transport of nutrients, muscle contractions, and other processes.
embryo the developing human during the first two to eight weeks of gestation.
emulsification a process that allows lipids—
endosperm the element of a grain that contains the highest amount of starch and protein; this is all that remains when a grain is refined.
energy the capacity to do work; obtained through the breakdown of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats in foods and beverages.
energy density the amount of energy or calories in a given weight of food; generally presented as the number of calories in a gram (kcal/g).
energy metabolism a series of chemical reactions in the body that break down carbohydrates, fats, and proteins to release energy, as well as the chemical reactions that use energy to construct molecules and carry out body processes.
energy substrates macronutrients used by the body to provide energy; typically in the form of glucose or fatty acids.
enriched grains cereal grains that lost nutrients during processing but have vitamins and minerals added back in; refined grains are often enriched.
enrichment a process used to replace some of the B vitamins and iron that are extracted from grains when they are refined.
enzymes protein molecules that catalyze, or speed up, the rate at which a chemical reaction produces new compounds with altered chemical structures; enzyme names end in the suffix “-ase.”
epidemiological study a scientific study that compares two groups of people, one of which has been exposed to an environmental factor, and one of which has not.
epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) a flavonoid found abundantly in white and green tea; it may have anti-
epigenetics a scientific field that examines the cross-
epinephrine (adrenaline) a hormone released from the adrenal glands to help the body prepare for a fight-
epithelial cells cells that form the skin and mucus membranes inside the body, such as those present in our eyes, lungs, and intestines.
ergogenic aids physical, mechanical, nutritional, psychological, or pharmacological substances or treatments believed to improve athletic performance by either directly improving physiological variables associated with exercise performance or removing subjective restraints that may limit physiological capacity.
essential amino acids the nine amino acids that cannot be produced by the human body and therefore must be obtained from food; they include histadine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine.
essential fatty acids fatty acids required in the diet because they cannot be synthesized by the human body; the two essential fatty acids are linoleic acid and linolenic acid.
essential nutrients nutrients that must be supplied through food because the body itself cannot produce or synthesize sufficient quantities to meet its needs.
Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) the average nutrient intake level estimated to meet the daily requirements of half of the healthy individuals for the different sexes and life-
Estimated Energy Requirement (EER) estimated number of calories per day required to maintain energy equilibrium in a healthy adult; this value is dependent on age, sex, height, weight, and level of physical activity.
exercise intentional physical exertion that results in a healthy or healthier level of physical fitness and physical and mental health.
excretion elimination of waste from the body; digestive waste includes any food stuff not absorbed by the intestinal tract.
experiment a scientific procedure conducted to test a hypothesis.
experimental group the group in a scientific experiment that does receive the experimental treatment.
extracellular found or occurring outside the cells of the body.
facilitated diffusion movement of a substance across a cell membrane, down a concentration gradient, with the assistance of a specific transport protein.
fasting hypoglycemia low levels of blood glucose that occurs when people have not eaten, have drunk too much alcohol, or have underlying hormonal conditions or tumors.
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fat-
fat substitute an additive that replaces fat in foods that is not absorbed by the body; provides a fat-
fats a term for triglycerides, a subclass of lipids, that are the primary form of fat in our bodies and our food.
fatty acids a type of lipid that is the primary component of triglycerides and phospholipids; consists of a hydrocarbon chain, with a carboxyl group on one end and a methyl group on the other.
fecal-
female athlete triad a condition recognized in female athletes; it is characterized by the interrelated energy restriction, menstrual dysfunction, and bone loss (osteoporosis).
fermentation the metabolic pathway through which microscopic yeast obtain energy from simple sugars in grains or fruit; the end product of this process is often alcohol.
fertility the capability to produce offspring and have a healthy pregnancy.
fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASDs) a group of conditions that are caused by use of alcohol during pregnancy; effects range in severity and can include physical, behavioral, and learning problems.
fetal alcohol syndrome mental and physical defects observed in infants born to mothers who consumed a significant amount of alcohol during pregnancy.
fetus the developing human from eight weeks of gestation until birth.
fiber a diverse group of polysaccharides, including cellulose and hemicellulose, found in plants’ cell walls; they may be straight chains of glucose or they may be branched chains composed of a variety of sugars. Fiber is abundant in legumes, nuts, whole grains, vegetables, and some berries but humans lack the digestive enzymes to break down plant fiber, so it passes undigested through the digestive tract.
flexibility activities activities that promote the ability to move joints through their whole span of movement.
flexitarian diet a diet that is mostly plant-
fluoride a trace mineral that plays a role in the prevention of dental caries through the hardening and maintenance of tooth enamel; it is also important in stabilizing bone structure.
folate also known as vitamin B9; it acts as a coenzyme in the synthesis of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) and metabolism of certain amino acids; the terms folate and folic acid are often used interchangeably.
food additives any substance added to a food product to prevent spoiling, modify flavor or texture, or change nutritional value.
food allergen a substance in food (usually protein) that the body identifies as harmful and that elicits an allergic reaction from the immune system.
food allergy a reproducible adverse reaction to a food that is caused by activation of an immune response.
foodborne illness a largely preventable disease or condition caused by consumption of a contaminated food or beverage that primarily affects the gastrointestinal tract.
foodborne infection an infection caused by consuming foods contaminated with a harmful bacterium, virus, or parasite that then multiplies in the intestines.
foodborne intoxication an illness that is caused by ingesting foods that contain a toxin that may be naturally present in the food, introduced by contamination with poisonous chemicals, or produced by bacteria or fungi growing on foods.
food desert a neighborhood or community with little access to a variety of affordable, healthy food.
Food and Drug Administration (FDA) the government agency responsible for the supply of safe food, regulation of additives, and labeling.
food defense an effort to protect the food supply against intentional contamination due to sabotage, terrorism, counterfeiting, or other illegal, intentionally harmful means.
food environment the social and physical factors that influence the foods we eat.
food insecurity lack of secure access to sufficient amounts of safe and nutritious food for normal growth and development and an active and healthy life.
food intolerance a reproducible adverse reaction to a food that is not a direct result of an immune response; not usually life-
food jags developmentally “normal” habits or rituals formed by children as they strive for more independence and control.
food labeling the declaration on a food package that describes the nutrient content and serving size of a food.
food safety the policies and practices that apply to the production, handling, preparation, and storage of food in order to prevent contamination and foodborne illness.
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Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA) signed into law in 2011, the FSMA aims to ensure that the U.S. food supply is safe from contamination by giving federal regulators more proactive authority in how food is grown, harvested, and processed.
food security always having physical, social, and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food that meets dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life.
foremilk breast milk produced at the beginning of feeding; it contains lactose and proteins, but little fat.
fortification the addition of vitamins and/or minerals to a food product.
free radicals substances that are naturally formed in the body or present in the environment that have an unpaired electron; at high levels they damage cells, including DNA, through a process called oxidation.
Freshman 15 a popular term used to describe the pattern of weight gain associated with the first year of college; in reality, weight gain averages three to four pounds during this time.
fructose a monosaccharide found in fruits, vegetables, and honey.
functional fiber nondigestible carbohydrates that are isolated from plants and animals and later added to foods; examples include psyllium and pectin.
functional food a food that provides additional health benefits beyond basic nutrition that may reduce disease risk or promote good health; these are also known as nutraceuticals.
galactose one of the monosaccharides that make up milk sugar (lactose).
gallstones small, pebble-
gastric juice secreted by the stomach during digestion; contains hydrochloric acid, proteases, lipase, and mucus.
gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) a recurrent and more serious form of acid reflux, accompanied by inflammation and/or erosion of the esophageal lining.
gastrointestinal tract a tubular channel extending from the mouth to the anus where digestion and absorption occur; also called the alimentary tract.
“generally recognized as safe” (GRAS) any substance intentionally added to food that is generally recognized, among qualified experts, as having been adequately shown to be safe under the conditions of its intended use; not subject to premarket review and approval by the FDA.
genetics a scientific field that describes how genes encoded in DNA are passed on between generations.
genetically modified (GM) foods foods derived from organisms that have had their genetic material (DNA) modified in some way that does not occur naturally; this may be achieved by introducing a gene from a different organism.
genetically modified organism (GMO) living organisms whose genetic material has been altered through the use of genetic engineering; GMOs are the source of genetically modified foods.
germ the embryo of the whole grain seed that germinates and grows; contains essential fatty acids and a number of B vitamins and minerals.
gestation the time during which the embryo develops in the uterus—
gestational diabetes a condition of elevated blood glucose levels arising in approximately 18% of all pregnant women, most of whom revert to normal blood glucose levels after delivery.
ghrelin a hormone, produced primarily in the stomach, that stimulates hunger before a meal.
glucagon a hormone produced in the pancreas that increases glucose availability in the blood.
glucose a monosaccharide that circulates in the bloodstream; found in fruits, vegetables, and honey.
glycemic index a number used to rank carbohydrate foods by their ability to raise blood glucose levels compared with a reference standard.
glycemic load the extent of increase in blood glucose levels, calculated by multiplying glycemic index by the carbohydrate content of a food.
glycerol a three-
glycogen a complex carbohydrate that is the storage form of glucose in animals; it is found primarily in skeletal muscle and the liver, and is the most highly branched of all polysaccharides.
glycolysis an anaerobic energy system that breaks down glucose into a three-
goiter enlargement of the thyroid gland, most often caused by lack of iodine in the diet.
growth charts a series of percentile curves illustrating the distribution of selected body measurements—
growth spurts periods of accelerated physical development in children and adolescents with associated changes in height and weight.
HACCP (Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points) preventative food safety system that addresses the manufacture, storage, and distribution of food products.
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health claims a statement on a packaged food or dietary supplement that indicates a link between a food, food component, or dietary supplement and a reduction in the risk of a disease; all health claims must be approved by the FDA.
healthy diet an eating pattern characterized by variety, balance, adequacy, and moderation that promotes health and reduces risk of chronic disease.
heavy drinking typically defined as consuming 15 or more standard alcohol drinks per week for men and 8 or more per week for women; heavy drinking can increase alcohol tolerance by increasing the rate at which alcohol is metabolized.
helminth large, multicellular parasitic worms; those that live in the intestinal tract are called intestinal parasites.
hemochromatosis a hereditary condition that results in increased absorption of iron and high iron stores; it can often result in iron toxicity.
heme iron iron derived from hemoglobin; the most bioavailable form of dietary iron; found in animal foods.
hemoglobin the oxygen-
hemorrhaging uncontrolled bleeding, can be caused by vitamin K deficiency.
hemorrhoids swollen or inflamed veins in anus or lower rectum.
herbal supplement a type of dietary supplement that includes plants (botanicals), single or in combination; typically dried preparations of flowers, leaves, roots, bark, and seeds.
high-
hindmilk breast milk produced towards the end of feeding; it contains more fat than foremilk.
hormones chemical substances that serve as messengers in the control and regulation of body processes.
hunger the biological impulse that drives us to seek out and consume food to meet our energy needs.
hydrochloric acid (HCl) a component of gastric juices that helps unfold proteins during digestion.
hydrodensitometry a method of determining body composition by measuring the difference in body weight in air and body weight under water during brief immersion.
hydrogenation chemical process by which hydrogen molecules are added to unsaturated fatty acids to make them more solid.
hygiene hypothesis the idea that reduced exposure to childhood infections in developed countries may explain drastic increases in the rates of allergies and other immune disorders, such as asthma, type 1 diabetes, celiac disease, and multiple sclerosis.
hypercalcemia a high level of calcium in the blood.
hyperglycemia abnormally high blood glucose levels.
hypertension blood pressure of at least 140/90 mmHg most of the time; a major risk factor for cardiovascular disease and stroke.
hypervitaminosis A vitamin A toxicity typically caused by supplementation; complications include liver damage and birth defects.
hypervitaminosis D a vitamin D toxicity typically as a result of oversupplementation.
hypoglycemia abnormally low blood glucose levels, resulting in symptoms of anxiety, hunger, sweating, and heart palpitations.
hypokalemia decreased blood levels of potassium; it is characterized by fatigue, muscle weakness, abnormal heart rhythms, increased calcium excretion, and reduced insulin production.
hyponatremia a condition characterized by a low serum sodium concentration and clinical signs of confusion, nausea, vomiting, bloating, and swelling around the brain; it may be seen in athletes who consume excess water with no sodium.
hypovitaminosis A a deficiency of vitamin A; in early stages it causes night blindness and scaly skin, but can eventually cause permanent blindness.
hypothesis a proposed explanation for an observation that can be tested through experimentation.
ileum the last and longest portion of the small intestine.
immune response the process by which the body recognizes and protects itself against invading pathogens and foreign substances.
immunoglobin E a class of antibody released in response to an allergen.
incomplete protein a food that lacks or supplies low amounts of one or more essential amino acids.
inflammatory bowel syndrome (IBD) general name for diseases that cause inflammation and irritation of the gastrointestinal tract; examples include Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis.
ingestion the process of taking food or other substances into the gastrointestinal tract via the mouth.
ingredients list a list of ingredients on a food package presented in descending order of amount, measured by weight, according to the guidelines of the Nutrition Labeling and Education Act.
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initiation the first step in the development of cancer, in which a cell’s DNA is mutated, making the cell more likely to divide than normal.
insoluble fiber a type of fiber that does not dissolve in water, increases transit time through the GI tract, and contributes “bulk” to stool, fostering regular bowel movements.
insulin a hormone produced in the pancreas that acts to regulate glucose in the bloodstream; insulin lowers blood glucose levels and promotes transport of glucose into the muscle cells and other tissues.
insulin pump a medical device used by individuals with type 1 diabetes that delivers insulin as needed.
insulin resistance a condition in which cells have a decreased sensitivity to insulin, resulting in impaired glucose uptake from blood, increased blood glucose levels, and further insulin release from the pancreas.
interstitial fluid a fluid that surrounds the cells of the body and creates an aqueous environment.
intracellular found within the body’s cells.
iodine a trace mineral that is necessary for the creation of thyroid hormones in the body; food sources include table salt, milk, and processed grain products.
ions elements that carry a positive or negative charge; the charge of an ion allows it to participate in chemical reactions and bond with other molecules.
iron the most abundant trace mineral in the human body; it is a crucial component of hundreds of enzymes and other proteins in the body.
iron-
irradiation technology that uses low doses of radiation to destroy insects and bacteria in foods to improve food safety.
irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) a group of symptoms that occur together: abdominal pain or discomfort, along with diarrhea and/or constipation.
jejunum the middle portion of the small intestine.
ketoacidosis the formation of ketones from fatty acids that may occur when diabetes is left untreated.
ketone bodies compounds synthesized from fatty acids by the liver when insulin levels are low.
kilocalories (kcal) standard unit to measure energy provided by food.
kwashiorkor a condition caused by an inadequate protein intake with reasonable caloric intake; it is characterized by a swollen belly, caused by edema and a fatty liver.
lactate (lactic acid) a molecule formed by glycolysis when the energy demands of skeletal muscle are high.
lactase an enzyme that breaks down lactose into glucose and galactose.
lactation production and secretion of milk from the mammary glands.
lactose a disaccharide sometimes called “milk sugar,” as it is found only in milk, yogurt, and other dairy products; made up of glucose and galactose.
lacto-
lactose intolerance a condition characterized by diminished levels of the enzyme lactase and subsequent reduced ability to digest the disaccharide lactose.
large intestine consists of the cecum, colon, and the rectum; extracts electrolytes, some fatty acids, and water from digested food before it is excreted as feces.
lecithin the most abundant phospholipid in the body; it’s frequently added to food products like salad dressings as an emulsifier because of its ability to keep water and lipids from separating.
leptin a hormone produced by adipose tissue that plays a role in body fat regulation and long-
limiting amino acid the amino acid in the shortest supply relative to its requirement for protein synthesis.
linoleic acid an omega-
linolenic acid (alpha-
lipases enzymes that break down fats (triglycerides) by releasing one or more fatty acids.
lipids structurally diverse group of naturally occurring molecules made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen that are generally insoluble in water, but are soluble in organic solvents; examples include fatty acids, triglycerides, sterols, and phospholipids.
lipoproteins particles formed by the assembly of proteins and phospholipids that transport lipids in lymph and in blood.
Listeria monocytogenes a foodborne pathogen that is the third leading cause of death due to food-
listeriosis a serious infection caused by eating food tainted with the bacterium Listeria monocytogenes, which can cause premature birth, miscarriage, fetal death, and newborn illness, as the bacteria can cross the placenta.
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lobules a group of alveoli (milk-
low-
lumen inner space of the GI tract lined with mucosal cells.
lycopene a carotenoid found in tomatoes, watermelon, and pink grapefruit; it may reduce the risk of developing cataracts, and prostate and ovarian cancers.
lymphatic system a system of vessels in which the products of fat digestion, among other things, are transported from the GI tract to the blood.
macronutrients a term used to describe nutrients that we require relatively large daily amounts; these include carbohydrates, proteins, water, and fats.
magnesium a mineral that is a cofactor in more than 300 chemical reactions in the body; as an ion it plays a role in muscle contraction, nerve impulse conduction, and heart rate maintenance.
major minerals minerals with a daily requirement of 100 milligrams or more; examples include sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, and sulfur.
malnutrition a state of undernutrition or overnutrition caused by inadequate, excessive, or unbalanced intake of calories and/or essential nutrients.
maltase an enzyme that breaks maltose down into two glucose units.
maltose a disaccharide formed in large amounts as a product of starch digestion; however, very little is found in the foods we eat.
manganese a trace mineral that functions as a co-
mannitol a sweetener used primarily in making chewable tablets; likely to cause a laxative effect when consumed in large amounts.
marasmus a condition caused by inadequate intake of protein, calories, and other nutrients; it is characterized by emaciation.
maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max) the maximum amount of oxygen that can be used at the peak of intense aerobic exercise.
mechanical digestion physical breakdown of food by mastication (chewing) and mixing with digestive fluids.
Mediterranean diet a dietary pattern rich in fruit, vegetables, nuts, olive oil, and whole grains and low in processed and red meats, dairy products, and sweets; it is followed in Mediterranean countries and has been proven to produce health benefits.
megaloblastic anemia a type of anemia characterized by large, immature, and sometimes irregularly shaped red blood cells; usually caused by folate or vitamin B12 deficiency.
messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) the type of RNA that carries the genetic code for a specific protein from the nucleus to the cytoplasm where proteins are made.
metabolic syndrome a cluster of risk factors associated with the development of cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes.
metastasis during the process of cancer progression, mutated cells acquire additional mutations that allow the cancer cells to migrate to, and invade, other tissues.
methyl group a group of three hydrogen atoms bonded to a carbon atom found at one end (the “omega” end) of the fatty acid chain.
micronutrients term used to describe nutrients essential in our daily diet to maintain good health, but required in only small amounts; these include vitamins and minerals.
microvilli very small projections that protrude from the absorptive mucosal cells of the villi in the small intestine; responsible for increasing the surface area for absorption twenty-
minerals inorganic chemical elements obtained through foods that are essential in human nutrition; there are 16 minerals considered essential in human nutrition, with diverse regulatory and structural functions.
mitochondria small organelles within the cytoplasm of cells where the vast majority of all ATP is produced.
moderation an aspect of healthy eating; not overindulging in any one type of food, food group, or in potentially harmful foods.
modifiable risk factors behaviors that can increase risk of disease; these include smoking, sedentary behavior, obesity, excessive alcohol consumption, high blood pressure, and poor dietary habits.
molybdenum a trace mineral that is a co-
monosaccharide a carbohydrate that consists of only one sugar molecule; examples include glucose, fructose, and galactose.
monounsaturated fatty acids a fatty acid with only one double bond between carbons in the carbon chain; they are abundant in olive oil, canola oil, and nuts.
morning sickness nausea and vomiting often experienced during the first trimester of pregnancy; it is triggered by hormonal changes, and may sometimes cause unique food aversions.
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motility contractions of the smooth muscles of the GI tract that mix food with digestive fluids and propel food along the length of the tract.
mucosa tissues that line the gastrointestinal tract, made up of mucosal cells (epithelial cells).
mucus a viscous solution that lubricates and protects the GI tract.
mutation a permanent change in the DNA sequence of a gene.
myocardial infarction damage to heart tissue caused by decreased blood flow to the coronary arteries; also known as a heart attack.
myoglobin a protein that functions to provide oxygen to muscles; contains less iron than hemoglobin.
MyPlate a visual presentation of foods from five food groups “on a dinner plate” to represent the ideal balance that will provide a spectrum of nutrients.
National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) a group of studies designed to assess the health and nutritional status of adults and children in the United States.
National School Lunch Program a federally assisted meal program operating in public and non-
NEAT (nonexercise activity thermogenesis) the energy expended for everything we do that is not sleeping, eating, or sports-
negative energy balance the state in which energy intake is less than energy expenditure resulting in weight loss.
neotame a non-
neural tube defects malformations of the brain, spine or spinal column of a developing embryo; these abnormalities are present at birth.
neuromotor activities activities that incorporate motor skills such as balance, coordination, and agility (also known as functional fitness).
neurotransmitters chemical substances involved in transmitting signals between nerve cells.
niacin also known as vitamin B3; it plays an important role in energy metabolism, and is commonly found in meats, fish, peanuts, mushrooms, and fortified cereals.
niacin equivalents (NEs) the total amount of niacin that is provided by a food from both the preformed vitamin and that which can be synthesized in the body from tryptophan in the food.
nitrogen balance a reflection of protein (nitrogen) intake versus protein (nitrogen) breakdown; indicates if the body is gaining, losing, or maintaining protein.
nonessential amino acids amino acids that the body can make and therefore need not be obtained through diet.
non-
nutrients chemical substances obtained from food that are essential for body function; they are needed for metabolism, growth, development, reproduction, and tissue maintenance and repair.
nutrient claims declarations on food packages to indicate a possibly beneficial level of nutrient (e.g., “high fiber,” “low fat,” etc.), federally regulated to be consistent with labeling laws.
nutrient deficiency a condition resulting from insufficient supply of essential nutrients through dietary inadequacy or impaired absorption or use.
nutrient density the amount of nutrients supplied by a food in relation to the number of calories in that food.
nutrition an interdisciplinary study of factors that affect our food choices, the physiological processes involved in processing and delivering the chemical components of those foods to cells throughout our body, and ultimately how those chemicals affect our health.
Nutrition Facts Panel provides specific information about the calorie content and nutrition for specific components, including serving size, number of servings, and number of calories per serving, as well as information on the amount of dietary fat, cholesterol, dietary fiber, dietary sodium, carbohydrates, dietary proteins, vitamins, and minerals in each serving.
Nutrition Labeling and Education Act (NLEA) an act that allows the FDA to require nutrition labeling of most prepared foods and dietary supplements.
nutritional genomics a field of science that studies the effect of food on genes.
obesity a condition characterized by accumulation of excess body fat, generally associated with adverse health effects such as heart disease, hypertension, type 2 diabetes, arthritis, and gout.
Olestra a fat substitute that has chemical components similar to those of triglycerides, but they are in a different configuration, and cannot be digested or absorbed by the body.
oligosaccharides a short-
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omega-
omega-
organic foods produced through approved methods that integrate cultural, biological, and mechanical practices that foster the recycling of resources, promote ecological balance, and conserve biodiversity.
organic compounds compounds that contain both carbon-
oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) a test used to diagnose prediabetes and diabetes; it measures the body’s response to glucose in the bloodstream.
osmosis a process by which water passes between intracellular and extracellular spaces through cellular membranes.
osteomalacia the adult form of rickets, caused by a vitamin D deficiency. It is characterized by softening and weakening of bones accompanied by pain in the pelvis, lower back, and legs.
osteopenia a condition characterized by low bone mineral density.
osteoporosis a bone disease in which the bone density and total mass are decreased, leading to porous bones, increased fragility, and susceptibility to fractures.
overnutrition excess intake or imbalance of calories and/or essential nutrients relative to need that results in adverse health effects.
overweight a moderate amount of excess body fat or an excess amount of body weight that may come from muscles, bone, fat, and water.
oxidation a loss of electrons; in the body, this results in damage to cells, and can eventually lead to diseases like cancer and heart disease.
pancreatic juice released by the pancreas during digestion; contains bicarbonate and enzymes.
pantothenic acid also known as vitamin B5; it has critical functions in energy metabolism and is also required for the synthesis of fatty acids, cholesterol, steroid hormones, and two neurotransmitters.
parasites organisms that live on or in a host, and obtain the nutrients they need from the host; they vary widely in size.
parathyroid hormone (PTH) a hormone released from the parathyroid gland in response to low serum calcium levels.
pathogens disease-
pellagra a disease caused by niacin deficiency; its characteristic symptoms are scaly skin, mouth sores, dermatitis, diarrhea, and dementia.
pepsin an enzyme produced by the cells lining the stomach that is involved in protein digestion.
peptide short chain of amino acids attached together.
peptide bond the bond that forms between two amino acids in the formation of a protein molecule.
percent Daily Value (%DV) an estimation of the amount of a specific nutrient contained in one serving, expressed as a percentage of the Daily Value, based on a daily intake of 2,000 kcal; DVs were developed specifically for nutrition labels.
peristalsis rhythmic, wavelike contractions of the smooth muscle of the GI tract.
pernicious anemia a condition caused by a failure to produce intrinsic factor, resulting in vitamin B12 malabsorption and megaloblastic anemia.
pescatarian diet a semi-
phospholipids a molecule that is both hydrophobic and hydrophilic, and is required to form cell membranes; an example is lecithin, which can be found in egg yolks, liver, and some plant products.
phosphorus the second most abundant mineral in the body; it plays a critical role in bone health and energy metabolism, and is an essential component of bone and cartilage, phospholipids, DNA, and RNA.
photosynthesis the process by which plants convert the energy of the sun into chemical energy in the form of carbohydrates.
physical activity any bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles that causes energy expenditure.
physical fitness the ability to perform moderate to vigorous activity without undue fatigue.
phytochemicals compounds found in plant foods that are physiologically active and beneficial to human health; they are not considered to be essential nutrients.
pica an eating disorder characterized by the desire to eat nonfood substances such as dirt, clay, or paint chips; pica may be a sign of anemia.
placebo a medication or treatment used in scientific experiments that contains no active properties.
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placebo effect apparent effect experienced by a patient in response to a “fake” treatment due to the patient’s expectation of an effect.
placenta organ within the uterus that allows for exchange between maternal and fetal circulations, via the umbilical cord.
plant-
plaque a waxy accumulation of cholesterol and triglycerides on the lining of the blood vessels; this can block the passage of blood flow, eventually leading to tissue damage or tissue death.
polypeptide an amino acid chain that contains many amino acids; several polypeptides can combine to form a protein.
polyphenols the most abundant and diverse photochemical in our diet; they are particularly rich in berries, coffee, tea, red wine, cocoa powder, nuts, and spices.
polysaccharide a long-
polyunsaturated fatty acids a fatty acid with two or more double bonds between carbons in the carbon chain; they are found in corn, safflower, sunflower, sesame, and soybean oils.
positive energy balance the state when energy intake exceeds energy expenditure that leads to weight gain.
potassium a mineral that is the primary electrolyte within cells; it works together with sodium and chloride to maintain fluid balance.
prebiotics nondigestible carbohydrates broken down by colon bacteria that foster the growth of good bacteria.
prediabetes a condition of higher-
preformed vitamins vitamins already present in their active form.
pregnancy the condition of being pregnant, encompassing the time from fertilization through birth.
probiotics live, beneficial bacteria found in fermented foods that can restore or maintain a healthy balance of “friendly” bacteria in the GI tract.
processed food any food that is altered from its raw form through processing such as canning, cooking, freezing, or milling; processing often involves adding ingredients such as sodium-
prostaglandins compounds derived from long-
proteases enzymes released from the pancreas that break down proteins.
proteins large molecules consisting of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen assembled in one or more chains of amino acids.
protein quality a measure of how well a protein meets our needs for protein synthesis; based on the proportion of essential amino acids present.
protein synthesis the process of building peptide chains and proteins from amino acids using information provided by genes; synthesis is a two-
protein turnover the continuous breakdown and re-
provitamins the inactive form (or precursor) of a vitamin that requires conversion to the active form in order to fulfill biological functions in the body.
puberty dynamic period of development with periodic growth spurts that result in changes in body size, shape, composition, and sex-
pyridoxine also known as vitamin B6; it functions as a coenzyme in the release of glucose from stored glycogen and in amino acid metabolism.
pyruvate a compound produced from the breakdown of glucose; lactate is produced from pyruvate and is produced faster than it can be metabolized in mitochondria.
qualified health claim a claim that describes the relationship between an ingredient and a reduced risk of a disease or condition, when the evidence linking a food, food component, or supplement to a reduced risk of a disease is emerging but does not meet the standard for a health claim.
quasi-
quercetin a flavonoid found in red and yellow onions, kale, capers, and cranberries; it has been shown to have anti-
randomized controlled trials a scientific experiment that rigorously compares experimental interventions with controls, and randomly assigns people to each category to offset any potential bias.
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reactive hypoglycemia low levels of blood glucose that occur after eating large amounts of carbohydrates, causing a huge release of insulin and rapid drop in blood glucose.
Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) the recommended nutrient intake levels that meet the daily needs and decrease risks of chronic disease in almost all healthy people for different sexes and life-
refined grain cereal grains that have been milled, a process that removes the bran and germ, leaving only the endosperm; white flour is an example of this.
registered dietitian a food and nutrition expert who has met the minimum academic and professional requirements to qualify for the credential.
resistance activities activities performed against an opposing force that increase muscle strength, improve body composition, and promote healthy bone density.
resistant starch a starch that remains intact after cooking, is not broken down by human digestive enzymes, and is not absorbed from the intestines. Diets high in resistant starch may improve insulin sensitivity and prolong the sensation of fullness.
respiration the process of transporting oxygen from the air to the cells within tissues (inhalation) and transporting carbon dioxide from cells to the air (exhalation).
retinal a form of vitamin A that is critical for vision and is derived from the conversion of retinol in the body.
retinoic acid a form of vitamin A derived from retinal; it is essential for growth and development.
retinol the active form of vitamin A in animal and fortified foods; it’s also the form of vitamin A that is stored in the body and transported between tissues.
retinol activity equivalents (RAE) a measure of vitamin A activity; it accounts for differences in bioavailability between preformed vitamin A (retinol) and provitamin A carotenoids.
rhodopsin a pigment in the retina that absorbs light and triggers nerve impulses to the brain for vision.
riboflavin also known as vitamin B2; it plays an important role in energy metabolism, and is found in dairy products.
riboflavinosis a condition caused by a riboflavin deficiency; it is characterized by cracks and redness of the lips and corners of the mouth, swelling of tissues in the mouth, and a sore throat.
rickets a condition caused by vitamin D deficiency, characterized by “bowed” legs due to impaired bone mineralization, softening of bones, skeletal malformations, and muscular weakness.
risk factor any characteristic, condition, or behavior that increases the likelihood of developing a particular disease.
saccharin a non-
saliva fluid secreted from salivary glands in the mouth to moisten food and provide lubrication.
satiation the sense of fullness while eating that leads to the termination of a meal.
satiety the effect that a meal has on our interest in food after and between meals and when we feel hungry again.
saturated fatty acid a fatty acid that contains no double bonds between carbons in the carbon chain and carries the maximum number of hydrogen atoms; they are relatively solid at room temperature. Examples include animal fats, coconut oil, and palm kernel oil.
scientific method a specific series of steps that involves a hypothesis, measurements and data gathering, and interpretation of results.
scurvy a disease caused by a deficiency of vitamin C resulting in bleeding gums, bruising, joint pain, and impaired wound healing.
segmentation process in which circular muscles in the small intestine contract to mix intestinal contents with digestive fluids and bring nutrients in the intestinal fluid in contact with the intestine’s absorptive surface.
select nutrients of concern nutrients that a particular demographic may not consume in adequate quantities.
selenium a trace mineral that functions as a co-
semi-
side chain a component of an amino acid that distinguishes one amino acid from another; they vary in length and composition.
signs objective evidence of disease that are observed by health care professionals, such as a rash or abnormal blood tests.
simple carbohydrates short carbohydrates made up of one or two sugar units (monosaccharides and disaccharides); also known as sugars.
simple diffusion movement of a substance across a cell membrane, down a concentration gradient.
skinfold thickness a method of determining body composition; calipers are used to measure the skinfold thickness at multiple sites, and these measurements are used to calculate an estimate of body fat.
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small for gestational age (SGA) a birth weight that is below the 10th percentile of gestational age; SGA infants are at higher risk of health complications during and after childbirth.
small intestine the primary site for the digestion of food and the absorption of nutrients; it’s split into three sections, the duodenum, the jejunum, and the ileum.
sodium a mineral that is commonly consumed in table salt, also known as sodium chloride (NaCl); sodium is the primary electrolyte responsible for maintaining fluid balance between cells and throughout the body.
solid fats and added sugars (SoFAS) often the source of calories in dense foods, such as desserts, sugar sweetened beverages, and animal products like cheese and meat.
solubility the ability of a substance (solute) to dissolve in a solution (solvent).
soluble fiber a type of fiber that dissolves in water and often forms a viscous gel that acts to slow digestion and lower blood cholesterol and risk of heart disease; it is also often readily fermented by bacteria in the colon.
solute a dissolved substance.
solvent a liquid substance that is capable of dissolving another substance such as water.
sorbitol a nutritive sweetener used in sugarless gums, chocolate candies, and ice cream; it is not metabolized by bacteria in the mouth and therefore does not promote tooth decay. Excess amounts can cause a laxative effect.
sphincter a ringlike muscle that relaxes or contracts to open or close a bodily passageway.
Staphylococcus aureus one of the leading causes of foodborne illness in the United States; it is a bacterium that, under certain conditions, releases a heat-
starches complex carbohydrates that are abundant in grains, legumes, and starchy vegetables; they consist of long chains of glucose joined together by digestible bonds. Examples include amylose and mylopectin.
sterols complex lipids with four interconnected carbon rings with a hydrocarbon side chain; a precursor for synthesis of steroid hormones.
stevia a non-
stroke a cerebral event that occurs when blood vessels supplying the brain are damaged or blocked.
structure/function claims a statement on the label of a packaged food or dietary supplement about how that product might affect the human body’s structure or function.
sucrase an enzyme that breaks sucrose into fructose and glucose.
sucralose a non-
sucrose a disaccharide made up of fructose and glucose; also known as table sugar.
sulfur a mineral that is present in protein-
Supplements Facts Panel package label that must indicate that the product is a supplement, not a conventional food, and must include serving size and amount of product per serving size, the percent of Daily Value that a particular ingredient or nutrient provides per serving, and a list of the product’s dietary ingredients.
sustainability the use of resources at rates that do not exceed the capacity of Earth to replace them; for food, a sustainable system implies safety and security of the food supply, a strong food industry in terms of jobs and growth, and, environmental sustainability in terms of biodiversity, water, and soil quality.
symptoms subjective evidence of disease that are experienced by the individual that only they can perceive, such as a stomachache or fatigue.
tagatose a monosaccharide that is almost identical to fructose, but provides fewer calories because it is poorly absorbed; used to provide both bulk and sweetness in foods such as ice cream, cakes, and candies. Also known as Naturlose.
taste buds taste receptor cells found on the tongue within the papillae that are involved in sensing foods on the basis of specific flavors, such as sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami.
thermic effect of food (TEF) the energy needed to digest, absorb, and metabolize nutrients in food.
thiamin also known as vitamin B1; it’s needed to provide energy from the breakdown of glucose, fatty acids, and some amino acids, as well as the production of sugars needed for the synthesis of RNA and DNA.
thyroid gland a gland located in the neck that releases the iodine-
thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) a hormone released from the anterior pituitary that stimulates the thyroid gland to produce and secrete thyroid hormones.
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tissue a collection of cells that have a similar origin.
tocopherols a group of fat-
Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) the highest amount of a specific nutrient that most people can consume daily without risk of side effects.
total carbohydrates total amount of starch, sugars, and dietary fiber in one serving.
total energy expenditure (TEE) the total amount of energy expended through basal metabolism, thermic effect of food, and activity energy expenditure.
trace minerals minerals with a daily requirement of less than 100 milligrams; examples include iron, zinc, copper, iodine, selenium, molybdenum, fluoride, manganese, and chromium.
trans fatty acids fatty acids created by adding hydrogen to liquid vegetable oils (partial hydrogenation) to make them more solid; intake of trans fatty acids is associated with an increased risk of chronic diseases, such as heart disease and cancer.
transcription the first step in protein synthesis; the process by which information encoded in genes (DNA) is used to make messenger RNA.
translation the second step in protein synthesis; process by which the information in messenger RNA is translated into a protein.
triglycerides the storage form of fat, made up of three fatty acid chains attached to the three carbons on a glycerol molecule.
trimester one-
tripeptide an amino acid chain that contains three amino acids.
type 1 diabetes mellitus an autoimmune disease characterized by elevated blood glucose levels, caused by destruction of the cells in the pancreas that normally produce insulin.
type 2 diabetes mellitus a condition characterized by elevated blood sugar levels due to reduced insulin sensitivity (or resistance) and some impairment of insulin secretion from the pancreas.
ulcer irritation or perforation of stomach (gastric) or small intestinal (duodenal) mucosal wall, caused by Helicobacter pylori infection, decreased mucus production, or impaired removal of stomach acid.
ultratrace minerals minerals that are found in the body, but not considered “essential” at this time; they include arsenic, boron, nickel, silicon, and vanadium.
umbilical cord a ropelike structure that supplies the fetus with nutrients and oxygen and removes waste.
undernourishment the inability, for a year or more, to acquire enough food to meet dietary energy requirements; undernourishment impairs growth and development and increases susceptibility to infections.
undernutrition inadequate nourishment caused by insufficient dietary intake of one or more essential nutrients or poor absorption and/or use of nutrients in the body.
unsaturated fatty acids a fatty acid that has at least one double bond between carbons in the carbon chain and has fewer than the maximum possible number of hydrogen atoms; they are generally liquid and room temperature and are most often found in plant foods such as seeds, nuts, grains, and vegetable oils.
uterus a muscular organ that holds the developing fetus.
variety an aspect of healthy eating involving choosing many different foods from all food groups, ensuring a broad range of nutrients consumed.
vegan diet a diet that eliminates all foods of animal origin.
vegetarian diet a diet consisting of plant-
very low-
villi fingerlike projections that protrude from the absorptive mucosal cells of the small intestine into the lumen of the GI tract; responsible for increasing the available surface area for absorption.
virus an infectious agent that consists of genetic material surrounded by a protein shell; viruses can only multiply inside the living cells of a host, and are thus unable to multiply in foods.
visceral fat fat in the abdominal area that surrounds the body’s internal organs, which has been shown to be an independent health risk.
vitamins organic compounds that are required in small quantities for specific functions in the body.
vitamin A a fat-
vitamin D a fat-
vitamin E a fat-
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vitamin K a fat-
vomiting forcible ejection of contents of stomach through the mouth; may be self-
water an essential nutrient that has critical functions in the body.
water-
Wernicke–
whole grain cereal grains, or foods made from cereal grains, that contain all the essential parts, including the energy-
xylitol a sweetener used in mouthwash, sugarless gums, and candies; it does not promote tooth decay, and causes a cooling sensation in the mouth when used in chewing gums and hard candies.
zinc a trace mineral required for the function of thousands of proteins and enzymes in the body.
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