Writers use various rhetorical strategies to present their ideas and opinions. Here are a few of the elements that you should examine when analyzing and evaluating an argument.

Thesis

The thesis—the main idea or claim that the argument supports—is of primary importance in every argument. When you analyze an argument, you should always ask, “What is the essay’s thesis, and why does the writer state it as he or she does?” You should also consider at what point in the argument the thesis is stated and what the effect of this placement is.

In “Letter from Birmingham Jail,” Martin Luther King Jr. begins by telling readers that he is “confined here in the Birmingham city jail” and that he is writing his letter to answer clergymen who have called his demonstrations “unwise and untimely.” King clearly (and unapologetically) states his thesis (“But more basically, I am in Birmingham because injustice is here”) at the beginning of the third paragraph, right after he explains his purpose, so that readers will have no doubt what his position is as they read the rest of his argument.

Organization

The organization of an argument—how a writer arranges ideas—is also important. For example, after stating his thesis, King tells readers why he is in Birmingham and what he hopes to accomplish: he wants unjust laws to be abolished and the 1954 Supreme Court ruling to be enforced. King then refutes—disproves or calls into question—the specific charges that were leveled at him by the white clergymen who want him to stop his protests.

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The structure of “Letter from Birmingham Jail” enables King to make his points clearly, logically, and convincingly:

Evidence

To convince an audience, a writer must support the thesis with evidence—facts, observations, expert opinion, and so on. King presents a great deal of evidence to support his arguments. For instance, he uses numerous examples (both historical and personal) as well as many references to philosophers, political thinkers, and theologians (such as Jesus, St. Paul, St. Augustine, Amos, Martin Luther, and Abraham Lincoln). According to King, these figures, who were once considered “extremists,” were not afraid of “making waves” when the need arose. Now, however, they are well within the mainstream of social, political, and religious thought. King also presents reasons, facts, and quotations to support his points.

Stylistic Techniques

Writers also use stylistic techniques to make their arguments more memorable and more convincing. For example, in “Letter from Birmingham Jail,” King uses figurative devices such as similes, metaphors, and allusions to enhance his argument.

Simile A simile is a figure of speech that compares two unlike things using the word like or as.

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Like a boil that can never be cured so long as it is covered up but must be opened with all its ugliness to the natural medicines of air and light, injustice must be exposed, … before it can be cured. (24)

Isn’t this like condemning a robbed man because his possession of money precipitated the evil act of robbery? (25)

Metaphor A metaphor is a comparison in which two dissimilar things are compared without the word like or as. A metaphor suggests that two things that are very different share a quality.

Frankly, I have yet to engage in a direct-action campaign that was “well timed” in the view of those who have not suffered unduly from the disease of segregation. (13)

[W]hen you see the vast majority of your twenty million Negro brothers smothering in an airtight cage of poverty … (14)

Allusion An allusion is a reference within a work to a person, literary or biblical text, or historical event in order to enlarge the context of the situation being written about. The writer expects readers to recognize the allusion and to make the connection to the text they are reading.

I would agree with St. Augustine that “an unjust law is no law at all.” (15)

Of course, there is nothing new about this kind of civil disobedience. It was evidenced sublimely in the refusal of Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego to obey the laws of Nebuchadnezzar, on the ground that a higher moral law was at stake. (21) [King expects his audience of clergymen to recognize this reference to the Book of Daniel in the Old Testament.]

In addition to those figurative devices, King uses stylistic techniques such as parallelism, repetition, and rhetorical questions to further his argument.

Parallelism Parallelism, the use of similar grammatical structures to emphasize related ideas, makes a passage easier to follow.

In any nonviolent campaign there are four basic steps: collection of the facts to determine whether injustices exist; negotiation; self-purification; and direct action. (6)

Shallow understanding from people of good will is more frustrating than absolute misunderstanding from people of ill will. Lukewarm acceptance is much more bewildering than outright rejection. (23)

I wish you had commended the Negro sit-inners and demonstrators of Birmingham for their sublime courage, their willingness to suffer, and their amazing discipline in the midst of great provocation. (47)

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Repetition Intentional repetition involves repeating a word or phrase for emphasis, clarity, or emotional impact.

“Are you able to accept blows without retaliating?” “Are you able to endure the ordeal of jail?” (8)

If I have said anything in this letter that overstates the truth and indicates an unreasonable impatience, I beg you to forgive me. If I have said anything that understates the truth and indicates my having patience that allows me to settle for anything less than brotherhood, I beg God to forgive me. (49)

Rhetorical questions A rhetorical question is a question that is asked to encourage readers to reflect on an issue, not to elicit a reply.

One may well ask: “How can you advocate breaking some laws and obeying others?” (15)

Will we be extremists for hate or for love? (31)