Belarus, Moldova, and Ukraine

Sandwiched between Russia and the Central European countries that were once part of the Soviet Union’s sphere of influence are the post-Soviet states of Belarus, Moldova, and Ukraine (Figure 5.30). Each of these countries is the home of a distinct ethnic group, but Russian residents form significant and influential minorities in all three. Given their location and history, these countries continue to maintain close ties with Russia, though Moldova and Ukraine would like to have closer associations with Europe.

FIGURE 5.30 The Belarus, Moldova, and Ukraine subregion. (A) Skateboarders in downtown Minsk, Belarus. Courtesy Bruce Yuanyue Bi/Lonely Planet Images/Getty Images

Belarus

In size and terrain, Belarus resembles Minnesota; its flat, glaciated landscape is strewn with forests and dotted with thousands of small lakes, streams, and marshes that are replenished by abundant rainfall. Much of the land has been cleared and drained for collective farm agriculture. The stony soils are not particularly rich; nor, other than a little oil, are there many known useful resources or minerals beneath their surface. Belarus absorbed 70 percent of radiation contamination after the Chernobyl nuclear accident in Ukraine in 1986 because of its proximity to the accident site. Twenty percent of Belarus’s agricultural land and 23 percent of its forestland were contaminated. Scientific and agricultural methods have been developed to reduce the level of radiation in the soil, but many people still rely on contaminated food.

During the twentieth century, Belarus was rather thoroughly Russified by a relatively small but influential group of Russian workers and bureaucrats. Although 81 percent of the population of 9.5 million is ethnic Belarusian (a Slavic group) and only 11 percent is Russian, the Russian language predominates, and Belarusian culture survives primarily in museums and historical festivals. The drab urban concrete landscape, such as in the capital Minsk, looks and feels like Soviet Russia (see Figure 5.30A). The Belarusian economy remains dominated by state firms that sell goods to Russia; only a few retail shops and industries are privatized. The unproductive economy was deeply affected by the recent recession, and Belarus received bailout funds from Russia in 2011.

Forced to accept political independence when the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991, Belarus remains tightly controlled by its autocratic leader, Alexander Lukashenko, who allows little meaningful democracy and freedom of speech. Lukashenko no longer accedes to all Russian demands, occasionally spars with Russia over trade agreements, and appears to be making overtures to the European Union, but because Belarus relies heavily on Russia—especially on cheap energy from Russia—it is unlikely to seriously rebel. Russia is also able to manipulate the flow of oil and gas to Europe that is transported via pipelines across Belarus (see Figure 5.14).

Russia sees Belarus as a useful buffer state against the growing influence of the EU and NATO. A buffer state is situated between two rival and more powerful political entities, in this case Russia and the European Union, and serves as neutral territory that limits direct contact and potential conflict between the two powers.

Moldova and Ukraine

Moldova has a mix of cultures—Romanian in the west and Slavic in the east—while Ukraine is primarily Slavic in its traditions, including dance, cuisine, religious customs, and architectural forms. The distinctive ethnic artistry of these two countries (elaborate holiday breads and pastries, intricate embroidery and lace, and in Ukraine, ornately painted Easter eggs) is prominently displayed in homes and marketed at home and abroad. Both countries seem to be tending toward closer association with the EU, but in Ukraine, long-standing ties to Russia moderate that propensity. Ukraine’s recent election history, which revealed east/west tensions, is discussed. Moldova is also affected by internal divisions that have developed as Slavic minorities in the eastern section of the country have formed a breakaway state called Transnistria, whose future political status is uncertain, although it currently receives political and economic support from Russia.

Moldova and Ukraine have warmer climates than do Belarus and Russia, and with their agricultural resources, they have the potential to increase their agricultural production significantly. Figure 5.16 shows that intensive crop cultivation is far more typical here than elsewhere in the post-Soviet states. Not only is the climate warmer, but the area’s open farming landscape is endowed with rich, black-colored soil (called chernozem). Moldova, which borders Romania to the west, is much smaller (3.7 million people) than the more economically diverse Ukraine (45 million people) but produces many of the same products—grain, sugar, milk, and vegetables, for example—as well as manufactured goods related to agriculture. Moldova is pursuing the possibility of increasing the amount of higher-value commodities, such as wine, nuts, and fruits, that it markets to Europe. Ukraine and Moldova will probably continue to trade their agricultural products primarily to Russia, but as farms are privatized and modernized, possibly through investment from Europe, both countries will likely increase their participation in the global agricultural market.

The European Union has a strong interest in Ukraine and Moldova. The two countries are potential future members of the EU, but their membership is dependent on economic and political progress toward greater democracy, and is affected by the ebb and flow of EU relations with Russia, which does not want either country to be reoriented toward Europe. Another issue is border security. The EU’s long eastern border faces Ukraine and Moldova. The EU cooperates with Ukraine and Moldova to tighten border security in order to reduce the number of undocumented immigrants and the illegal drugs that follow a route from Asia, through Ukraine and Moldova, and on to western Europe. Finally, oil and gas pipelines from Russia cross Moldova and Ukraine on their way to Europe (see Figure 5.14), and the region is also a potential route for future pipelines from Caucasia to EU countries.