Index
I-1
Note: Page numbers followed by f and t indicate figures and tables, respectively. Boldfaced page numbers indicate key terms.
ABO antigens, 162–163
Abortion, selective, 218
Abundance, 254. See also Species richness
bottom-up effects on, 434–435, 434f
direct effects on, 431
geographic range and, 260, 260f
indirect effects on, 431–434, 431f. See also Indirect effects
log-normal distributions of, 421, 421f
mutualism and, 405–407
predation and, 320, 321f
rank-abundance curves and, 421, 421f
relative, 420–421
species diversity and, 420–422
top-down effects on, 434–435, 434f
Acacia trees, mutualism with ants, 397–398, 397f, 398f, 405–407
Acanthocephalus dirus, 358–359
Acclimation, 91, 98–99
Acid deposition, 40
Acid rain, 40
Acidity, 38–40, 39f
Active hunting, 331
Active transport, 40
Adaptations, 7, 9–10
to aquatic environments, 32–54. See also Aquatic environments, adaptations to
to environmental variation, 84–111
to terrestrial environments, 57–83
by animals, 57–58, 71–80
by plants, 59–71
Adiabatic cooling, 120
Adiabatic heating, 120
Aestivation, 103
Afrotropical region, 535, 535f
Agaves, life span of, 195f, 196
Age distribution, stable, 286–287
Age structure, 283–284, 284f
population fluctuations and, 297–298, 298f
Aggressive interactions, 381–382, 382f
Agriculture
animal breeding in, 548–549, 549f
climate change and, 157
fertilizers in
algal blooms and, 12, 491–492, 501, 501f
industrial production of, 498
species richness and, 425–426, 425f, 426f
grape cultivation in, 137–138, 157
growing seasons and, 141
irrigation in, salinization and, 62
plant breeding in, 173, 173f, 180, 180f, 548–549, 549f
plant hardiness zones and, 113–114
Air density, 119
Air plants, 13, 13f
Air pollution. See also Pollution
acid rain in, 40
in natural selection, 175–176, 176f
Albedo, 117, 117f
Aldabra tortoise (Aldabrachelys gigantea), 409f, 410
Algae, 150. See also Phytoplankton
alternative stable states and, 436–437
blue-green, 11–12, 12f
buoyancy of, 36, 36f
in coral reefs, 53
mutualism with salamanders, 393
mutualism with sea slugs, 393, 393f
pesticide effects on, 438–439, 439f
population fluctuations among, 296–297
in salamander embryos, 48, 48f
sea urchins and, 323
Algal blooms, 12, 12f, 491–492, 501, 501f
Alkalinity, 39, 39f
Allee effect, 277
Alleles, 162–163
codominant, 164, 164f
dominant, 163–164
recessive, 163–164
Alleopathy, 382, 382f, 383f
Allochthonous inputs, 149, 508–509
Allopatric speciation, 178, 178f, 179f
Alpha diversity, 518–519
Alpheid shrimp (Alpheus randalli), 396, 396f
Alpine tundra, 142
Alternative stable state, 436–437, 437f
Altruism, 236f, 237
in eusocial species, 240–243
kin selection and, 237–240
Amber snail (Succinea putris), 343, 343f
Ambush hunting, 331
American chestnut (Castanea dentata), 249
American elm, decline of, 350, 350f
American grasshopper (Schistocerca americana), 107
Ammonia
in nitrogen balance, 74
from nitrogen fixation, 395, 456, 497–498, 498f
Amphibians
declines in, 350–351, 351f, 547, 547f
evolution of, 85–86
pesticide effects on, 438–439, 439f
Anaerobic conditions, 48–49
Andrewartha, Herbert, 276
Animals, 14–15
breeding of. See also Reproduction
artificial selection in, 173–174, 173f, 174f, 180, 180f
decline in genetic diversity due to, 548–549, 549f
domesticated, social behaviors in, 243–244
mutualism in, 395–396
with other animals, 396, 396f
with protozoans, 395–396
succession of, 450, 450f
Annual life history, 195
Anoxia, 48–49
Anthrax, 349
Antibiotic resistance, 174
Ants
competition with kangaroo rats, 367–368, 373–374, 374f
eusociality of, 240–243
interference competition among, 381–382, 382f
mutualism in, with acacia trees, 397–398, 397f, 398f, 405–407
in seed dispersal, 397–398, 397f, 398f
social behavior of, 361–362
Aphotic zone, 155f, 156
Aphytis melinus, 320, 321f
Aposematism, 333–334, 334f, 335f
Apparent competition, 381, 382–387, 383
from forest ferns, 386–387
from parasites, 383–384, 383f
from pathogens, 384
Apple thrip (Thrips imaginis), 276
Aquatic biomes, 148–156
benthic zone in, 150f, 151
coral reefs, 154, 155f
freshwater wetlands, 152–153
intertidal zones, 154, 154f
limnetic (pelagic) zone in, 150, 150f
littoral zone in, 150, 150f
open ocean, 154–156, 155f
ponds and lakes, 149–152
profundal zone in, 150, 150f
riparian zone in, 149
salt marshes/estuaries, 153, 153f
streams and rivers, 148–149, 149f
Aquatic environments. See also Water
adaptations to, 32–54
carbon dioxide uptake and, 45–46, 46f
dissolved organic nutrients and, 36–40
in freshwater animals, 41–42, 41f
osmoregulation in, 40–41, 41f
oxygen uptake in, 47–48, 48f
salt balance and, 40–41
in saltwater animals, 41f, 42–43
in saltwater plants, 43–45
water density and viscosity and, 35–36, 35f–37f
water temperature and, 34–35, 49–52, 49f–52f
anaerobic/anoxic conditions in, 48–49
carbon cycle and, 495, 495f
herbivores in, 322–323
productivity in, 476–479, 477f. See also Productivity
phosphorus and nitrogen in, 477–478, 477f
silicon and iron in, 478–479
succession in, 450–454. See also Succession
zonation in, 415–416, 416f
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, 395
Arctic tundra, 142
Area, species richness and. See Species-area relationships
Area- and volume-based surveys, 256–257, 257f
Arid environments
adaptations to
by animals, 57–58, 71–73, 73f
by plants, 70f, 71
cold (temperate) deserts, 145–146, 146f
hot deserts, 148, 148f
subtropical deserts, 148, 148f
Artificial selection, 173–174, 173f, 174f. See also Selection
on social behavior, 244
Asexual reproduction, 208–210, 211. See also Reproduction
Assimilated energy, 472, 473f
Assimilation, in nitrogen cycle, 498–499, 498f
Assimilation efficiency, 482, 482f
calculation of, 484
Asterionella diatoms, 370–371, 371f, 378, 378f
I-2
Asteroid impact, extinctions due to, 545
Atlantic cod fisheries, collapse of, 553–554, 553f, 554f
Atmospheric convection currents, 119–123
formation of, 120–122
properties of air and, 119–120
Australasian region, 535, 535f
Autochthonous inputs, 149
Autotrophs, 14f, 15
Avian malaria, 349, 354
Bacteria, 11–12
ant-acacia mutualism and, 398, 398f
in decomposition, 504–505, 504f
evolution of, 10–11
horizontal gene transfer in, 4
mutualism with plants, 395, 395f, 398
nitrogen-fixing, 395, 456, 497–498, 498f
parasitic, 349, 349f
photosynthesis in, 11–12
sex-altering, 227–228
thermophilic, 49–50, 50f
Bacterial infections, 349, 349f
Bamboo, life span of, 195–196, 195f
Bark beetles, 276, 277f
Barnacles, competition among, 379, 379f
Basic metapopulation model, 265–266, 310
Bat(s)
pollination by, 400, 400f
white-nose fungus in, 352, 352f
Bates, Henry, 334
Batesian mimicry, 334, 334f
Beavers, as ecosystem engineers, 428, 429f
Bedstraw (Galium), competition among, 373, 373f
Bees
eusociality of, 240–243
pollination by, 400
sex life of, 207–208, 240
social organization of, 207–208, 240–241
Behavioral defenses, 331–332, 332f
Benthic zone, 151
in oceans, 155f, 156
in ponds and lakes, 150f, 151
Beta diversity, 519
Bicarbonate ions, 45–46, 46f
Binary fission, 209
Biodiversity. See also Species distribution; Species diversity; Species richness
in Cape Floristic Region, 515–516
cultural services of, 544
declines in
conservation efforts for, 559–564. See also Conservation
from extinction. See Extinction
in genetic diversity, 548–550, 549f
from global climate change, 557–559, 558f, 559f
from habitat loss, 550–552, 551f
from overharvesting, 552–554, 553f, 554f
from pollution, 556–557, 556f
in species diversity, 545–548, 546f, 547f
genetic, 548–550, 549f
geographic location and, 530–534
instrumental value of, 543–544
intrinsic value of, 543
provisioning services of, 543, 543f
regulating services of, 543–544
supporting services of, 544
Biodiversity hotspots, 541–542, 542f
Biofuels, 26
Biogeographic regions, species distribution in, 535–536, 535f
Bioluminescence, 156
Biomagnification, 556, 556f
Biomass, 322
measurement of, 470–471
pyramid of, 480, 480f
in standing crop, 469
Biomass residence time, 485
Biomes, 138
aquatic, 148–156
changing boundaries of, 156–157
climate diagrams for, 140–141, 140f
terrestrial, 138–148
Biosphere, 6, 6f
Biosphere approach, 7
Biotic homogenization, 555
Bird(s)
apparent competition in, 383–384, 383f
declines in, 546–547, 547f
line-transect studies of, 257
mutualism in, 399
nest parasitism in, 524, 524f
offspring number vs. parental care in, 191–192, 192f
succession of, 450, 450f
West Nile virus in, 347–348, 348f
Bird flu, 348, 348f
Black snake (Pseudechis porphyriacus), 336, 336f
Black walnut tree (Juglans nigra), 382
Black-footed ferret, 313–314
Black-legged tick (Ixodes scapularis), Lyme disease and, 362–364
Blood shunting, 79, 79f
Blood types, 162–163
Blue tit (Parus caeruleus), 265, 265f
Blue-green algae, 11–12, 12f
Blue-spotted salamander (Ambystoma laterale), 180, 180f
Body size
determinate growth and, 193
distribution of, 163, 163f
egg size and, 185–186
indeterminate growth and, 193
population density and, 260–261, 260f
selection of, commercial fishing and, 203–204
sexual dimorphism and, 224, 224f
thermal inertia and, 77
Body temperature
heat exchange and, 75–77
hibernation and, 101, 101f
regulation of, 71–72, 72f, 77–78
torpor and, 101–103, 101f
Bogs, 153
Bombardier beetle (Stenaptinus insignis), 333, 333f
Bonds, hydrogen, 37, 37f
Boreal forests, 142–143, 143f
Borrelia burgdorferi, 362
Bottleneck effect, 167–168, 168f
Bottom-up control, 434–435, 434f
Boundary layer, 46, 47f
Bovine spongiform encephalopathy, 348
Breeding. See also Reproduction
artificial selection in, 173–174, 173f, 174f, 180, 180f
decline in genetic diversity due to, 548–549, 549f
Bronzed cowbird (Molothrus aeneus), 524
Brown, James, 526
Brown tree snake (Boiga irregularis), 320, 320f, 554
Burmese pythons, 94, 94f
C3 photosynthesis, 66–67, 68f, 69f
in cotton, 81
C4 photosynthesis, 67–69, 68, 68f, 69f
Cactus moth (Cactoblastis cactorum), 321–322, 322f
Calcium carbonate, 38, 39, 39f, 495
Calcium ions, 38, 39
California condor, reintroduction of, 562, 562f
California red scale insect (Aonidiella aurantii), 320, 321f
California sea otters, 28f, 29–30
Calvin cycle, 66–70, 67f
CAM photosynthesis, 69–70, 69f
Camels, evolution of, 57–58, 534–535
Camouflage, 85–86, 332, 332f
Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis), population fluctuations among, 317–318, 323, 323f
Cane toad (Bufo marinus), 336, 336f
Cape Floristic Region, 515–516
Cape honeybee (Apis mellifera capensis), sex life of, 207–208
Carbohydrates, from photosynthesis, 494
Carbon burial, 495–496
Carbon cycle, 494–497, 495f
human impacts on, 496–497
transformations in, 494–496, 496f
Carbon dating, 447
Carbon dioxide
in carbon cycle, 494–497, 495f
in photosynthesis, 66–70, 67f, 471–472, 494–495
in primary productivity measurement, 471–472, 471f
rising levels of
effect on plants, 108–109
greenhouse effect and, 114–116, 115f, 496–497. See also Global climate change/global warming
measurement of, 496, 496f, 497f
solubility in water, 45–46, 46f
Carbonate ions, 45–46, 46f
Caribbean cleaning goby (Elicatinus evelynae), 402–403, 402f
Carnivores, 5
Carnivorous plants, 13, 13f
Carotenoids, 66, 66f
Carpenter ant (Camponotus leonardi), 343–344, 344f
Carrying capacity, 281, 282f
overshooting, 298–300, 298f, 299f
Caste, 240
Categorical variables, 74
Cation exchange capacity, 131
Cats, as introduced predators, 339–340, 555
Cattle grazing, in climax communities, 462, 462f
Census, 256
Central place foraging, 104–105, 104f, 105f
Chaparral, 145
Chemical, alleopathic, 382, 382f, 383f
Chemical defenses, 333, 333f, 334f
costs of, 334–335
counter-adaptations to, 336, 336f
against herbivores, 336–338, 338f
mimicry of, 333–334, 334f, 335f
Chemosynthesis, 2
Chestnut trees, decline of, 350
Chickens
genetic diversity among, 547, 548f
social behaviors of, 243–244
Chinese bushclover (Lespedeza cuneata), 252, 252f
Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha), 185–186
Chi-square tests, 385
Chlamydia, 354
Chloride ions, 37–38, 38f
Chlorophyll, 65–66, 66f
Chloroplasts, 65–66, 65f
Christmas bird count, 257
Chromosomes, 162
crossing over and, 165
I-3
in meiosis, 165
sex, 216–217
Chronic wasting disease, 348–349, 349f
Chronosequences, 446, 449
Chrysolina quadrigemina, 322, 322f
Chytrid fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis), 350–351, 351f, 547
Cicadas, 197, 197f
Circulation, countercurrent, 47, 48f, 79, 80f
Circulatory system, in terrestrial animals, 79–80, 79f, 80f
Clay, 60, 60f, 61f, 131
Cleaner wrasse (Labroides dimidiatus), 398–399, 398f, 402, 404
Clements, Frederic, 418
Climate, 87. See also Temperature, environmental
atmospheric convection currents and, 119–123, 121f–124f
coastal proximity and, 127–128
continental land area and, 127
dry, 128, 129f
greenhouse effect and, 114–116, 115f
Mediterranean, 145
moist continental mid-latitude, 128–129, 129f
moist subtropical mid-latitude, 128, 129f
mountains and, 128–129
ocean currents and, 123–129, 125f–127f
plant hardiness zones and, 113–114
polar, 129, 129f
seasonal variation and, 117–118, 119f
soil and, 129
Sun’s angle and path and, 116–117, 116f
tropical, 128, 129f
vs. weather, 87
Climate change. See Global climate change/Global warming
Climate diagrams, 140–141, 140f
Climax communities, 445, 448, 448f, 459–462
changes in
over space, 459–460
over time, 459–460, 460f
under extreme conditions, 462
fire-maintained, 462
gaps in, 461, 461f
grazer-maintained, 462, 462f
transient, 460, 461f
Clones, 209, 210
Clustered dispersion, 255–256, 255f
Coal mining, succession after, 463–464
Codominance, 164, 164f
Coefficient of determination, 190–191
Coefficient of relatedness, 237–238, 237f
Coevolution, 336
parasite-host, 360–362
predator-prey, 336
Cohesion, of water, 62–64, 63f
Cohesion-tension theory, 62–64, 63f
Coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kistuch), 185–186
Cohort life tables, 288–289, 290f
Cold, adaptation to, 79, 80f
Cold deserts, 145–146, 146f
Collapsed fisheries, 553–554, 553f, 554f
Collard lizard, habitat restoration for, 247–248, 524–525
Colonization
dispersal in, 261–263, 263f
on islands, 526–530, 528f, 529f. See also Equilibrium theory of island biogeography
in metapopulations, 310
Coloration
protective, 85–86, 332, 332f
warning, 333–334, 334f, 335f
Commensalism, 17, 17t
Common reed (Phragmites australis), 382, 382f, 383f
Communities, 5, 412–441
alternative stable states in, 436–437, 437f
bottom-up control of, 434–435, 434f
boundaries of, 414–420
distinct, 416–418, 418f
ecotones, 417–418, 417f, 418f, 522–524
categorization of, 416–420
climax, 445, 448, 448f, 459–462
direct effects in, 431
as ecological systems, 5
food webs in, 430–435
independent, 418–420, 419f
indirect effects in, 431–434
interdependent, 418–420, 420f
line-transect surveys of, 257, 257f, 417–419, 418f, 419f
response to disturbances in, 435–437, 436f
social behaviors in. See Social behaviors
species distribution in, 418–420, 419f
species diversity in. See Species diversity
of spiders, 413–414, 414f
as superorganisms, 418
top-down control of, 434–435, 434f
zonation in, 414–416, 415f, 416f
Community approach, 7
Community resilience, 435
Community resistance, 435
Community similarity, quantification of, 453
Community stability, 435–436
Community succession. See Succession
Competition, 16, 366–389
apparent, 381, 382–385
among closely related species, 372
competitive exclusion principle and, 372–373, 372f–374f
among distantly related species, 373–374, 374f
effects on supply and demand, 370
environmental disturbances and, 380, 380f
exploitative, 381
herbivory and, 367–368, 380–381
indirect effects of, 431–432
interference, 381–382, 382f
interspecies, 16, 17t
interspecific, 368–369
intraspecific, 368–369
Liebig’s law of the minimum and, 370–371, 371f
logistic growth equation for, 374–378
models for
for multiple resources, 378, 378f
for single resources, 374–378, 375f, 377f
for open space, 369, 369f, 373
outcome prediction for, 376–378, 377f
phenotypic plasticity and, 93–94
predation and, 380
resource availability and, 368–374, 386–388
Competition coefficients, 374–375
Competitive exclusion principle, 372–373, 372f–374f
Concurrent circulation, 47, 48f
Condors, reintroduction of, 562, 562f
Conduction, 76
Conifers, declines in, 546, 547f
Connell, Joseph, 379
Conservation of energy, 8
Conservation of matter, 8
Conservation strategies
habitat protection, 560–561
reduced harvesting, 561–562
species reintroduction, 562–564
Consumers, 14f, 15
in food webs, 430
primary, 430
secondary, 430
tertiary, 430
Consumption efficiency, 481
calculation of, 484
Continental drift, 534–535, 534f
Continuous variables, 74
Control, experimental, 22
Convection, 76
Convection currents, 119–123
formation of, 120–122
properties of air and, 119–120
Convergent evolution, 138, 139f
Cooper, William, 443–444, 446, 449
Cooperation, 236, 236f
Copedod (Tigriopus), 98, 98f
Coral, mutualism with zooxanthellae, 393, 393f
Coral bleaching, 53, 154
Coral reefs, 154, 155f
decline of, 52–53, 154
Coral-crab mutualism, 391–392
Coriolis effect, 122–123, 123f, 124f
Correlation, 102
Corridors, habitat. See Habitat corridors
Cosmopolitan species, 254
Cost of meiosis, 210, 210f
Cotton farming, 80–81
Countercurrent circulation, 47, 48f, 79, 80f
Cowles, Henry, 445
Crab-crab mutualism, 391–392
Crassulacean acid metabolism, 69–70, 69f
Creek chub (Semotilus atromaculatus), 105–106, 106f
Creeks, 149
Crop plants. See Agriculture; Plants
Crossing over, 165
Crucian carp (Carassius carassius), 333, 333f
Crypsis, 332, 332f
Cultural eutrophication, 501
Cultural services, 544
Currents
atmospheric convection, 119–123
ocean, 123–129. See also Ocean currents
Cyanobacteria. See also Algae
in algal blooms, 11–12, 12f, 491–492, 501, 501f
Cyclotella diatoms, 370–371, 371f
Damped oscillations, 302–303, 302f
Dams, 149
in habitat fragmentation, 522, 523f
Damselfish, mutualism in, 402–403, 402f
Darwin, Charles, 2–3, 9, 161–162, 173, 372
Darwin’s finches, 170, 171f
allopatric speciation in, 178, 179f
natural selection in, 161–162
Data, 24
mean of, 24–25
Davidson, James, 276
DDT, biomagnification of, 556, 556f
Dead zones, 12, 491–492, 501, 501f
Decomposers, 17
Decomposition, 504–509, 504f–506f
in aquatic environments, 507–509, 508f
calculating rate of, 507
in terrestrial environments, 504–507, 506f
Deep-sea vents, 1–2
Deer, offspring sex ratio in, 218–219, 218f
Deer tick (Ixodes scapularis), Lyme disease and, 362–364
Defenses
against herbivores, 336–339, 338f
mutualism for
in animals, 98–399
in plants, 397–398, 397f, 398f
I-4
against parasites, 359
against predators, 85–86, 92–93, 331–336. See also Predator(s), defenses against
Deforestation
habitat heterogeneity after, 517
habitat loss/fragmentation after, 521–526, 550–552, 551f
nutrient regeneration and, 510–511
Delayed density dependence, 301–305, 302f
Demographic stochasticity, 307
Demography, 272
Denitrification, 498f, 499
Density
population, 254–255, 254f. See also Population density
body size and, 260–261, 260f
overshoots and die-offs and, 298–300, 298f, 299f
population growth and, 277–283, 277f–280f, 282f
of water, 35–36, 35f, 36f
Density dependence
delayed, 301–305, 302f
inverse, 277
negative, 277–278, 277f–280f, 280–281
population cycles and, 300–305
positive, 278–281, 280f
Density-dependent factors, in population growth, 277–281, 277f–280f
Density-independent factors, in population growth, 276, 276f
Density-mediated indirect effects, 432
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), 162
Dependent variables, 74
Desert(s). See also Arid environments
adaptations to
by animals, 57–58, 71–73, 73f
by plants, 70f, 71
cold (temperate), 145–146, 146f
hot, 148, 148f
subtropical, 148, 148f
Desert iguana (Dipsosaurus dorsalis), 96–97, 96f
Determinate growth, 193
Deterministic models, 307
Detritivores, 5, 17, 504, 504f
Diapause, 100–101
Diatoms, 36, 37f
competition among, 370–371, 371f, 378, 378f
Die-offs, 298–300, 298f, 299f
Diet mixing, 107–108, 107f
Diffusion, in water, 45–46
Dilution effect, 233–234, 233f
Dinosaurs, extinction of, 545
Dioecious plants, 214–215, 214f
Direct effects, 431
Direct fitness, 237
Direct selection, 237
Directional selection, 170, 171f
Dispersal, 256
barriers to, 261
in colonization, 261–263, 263f
habitat corridors in, 261–263, 262f, 263f. See also Habitat corridors
of invasive species, 252, 252f, 267–268
lifetime dispersal distance and, 259
quantification of, 258–259
Dispersal limitation, 261
Dispersion, 255–256, 255f
clustered, 255–256, 255f
evenly spaced, 255f, 256
random, 255f, 256
Displays, mating, 234, 234f, 238–239, 238f
Disruptive selection, 170–173, 171f
Disturbances
community response to, 435–437, 436f
competition and, 380, 380f
species diversity and, 428–430, 429f
DNA, 162
Dodder, 13, 13f
Dodo bird (Raphus cucullatus), 409
Dog breeding, 173–174, 173f
Dolomite, 495
Domesticated animals. See also Animals
breeding of, 548–549, 549f
social behaviors in, 243–244
Dominance hierarchy, 236
Dominant alleles, 163–164
Donors, in social interactions, 236, 236f
Dormancy, 100–103
aestivation in, 103
diapause in, 100
freezing in, 103, 103f
hibernation in, 101, 101f
torpor in, 101, 101f
Doubling time, 275–276, 275f
Drought. See Arid environments
Drug-resistant pathogens, 174, 181–182
Dry climates, 128, 129f
Duke Forest, succession in, 448, 448f
Dunes, succession of, 445–446, 447, 447f, 448
Dutch elm disease, 350, 350f
Dwarf mistletoe (Arceuthobium), 347
Dynamic steady states, 8–9, 9f
Earth
heating of. See Heating of Earth
rotation of, Coriolis effect and, 122–123, 123f, 124f
Earthworms, 467–468
Ebony tree (Diospyros egrettarum), 410
Ecological efficiency, 483
calculation of, 484
Ecological envelope, 252
Ecological niche modeling, 250–252, 251, 252f
of invasive species, 252, 252f
Ecological stoichiometry, 485–486, 486f
Ecological systems, 3
communities as, 5
conservation of matter and energy in, 8
dynamic steady states in, 8–9, 9f
ecosystems as, 5–6
evolution of, 9–20
hierarchical organization of, 3–8, 4f
human impact on, 26–28, 27f
individuals as, 3
populations as, 4–5
principles of, 8–9
species as, 3–4
types of, 3, 4f
Ecologists, roles of, 27–28
Ecology, 1–31, 2
biosphere approach to, 7–8
community approach to, 7
ecosystem approach to, 7
individual approach to, 6–7
overview of, 2–3
population approach to, 7
scientific method and, 20–26
Ecosystem(s), 5–6, 6f
aquatic. See Aquatic biomes; Aquatic environments
terrestrial. See Terrestrial biomes; Terrestrial environments
Ecosystem approach, 7
Ecosystem engineers, 427–428, 429f
Ecotones, 417–418, 417f, 418f, 522–524
Ectomycorrhizal fungi, 394f, 395
Ectoparasites, 345–347, 346f, 346t
Ectotherms, 77, 78f
Edge habitats, 522–524, 524f, 551
Egested energy, 472, 473f
El Niño–Southern oscillation, 125–126, 126f
Elaiosomes, 401–402, 401f
Electromagnetic radiation, 64
greenhouse effect and, 114–116, 115f
in photosynthesis, 64–66, 64f
Elephants
habitat corridors for, 525, 525f
mutualism among, 402
Elms, decline of, 350, 350f
Elton, Charles, 317–318
Embryos, predator effects on, 200, 200f
Emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis), 267
Emerging infectious diseases, 351–352, 352f
Endangered Species Act, 563
Endemic species, 254
Endomycorrhizal fungi, 394–395, 394f
Endoparasites, 346, 346t, 347–352
bacterial, 349, 349f
intracellular vs. intercellular, 347
prions, 348–349
protozoans, 349
viruses, 347–348, 347f
Endophytic fungi, 398
Endotherms, 78
Enemies. See Defenses; Parasite(s); Pathogens; Predator(s)
Energy
assimilated, 472, 473f
conservation of, 8
egested, 472, 473f
pyramid of, 480, 480f
respired, 472, 473f
solar
greenhouse effect and, 114–116, 115f
in photosynthesis, 64–66, 64f
species richness and, 532–533, 533f
Energy producers, 468
Energy residence times, 484
Energy storage
food availability and, 100, 100f
population cycling and, 303–304, 304f
Energy transfer, 466–489, 479
efficiency of, 481–486
in aquatic vs. terrestrial ecosystems, 483–484
assimilation, 482, 482f
calculation of, 484
consumption, 481
ecological, 482f, 484
food chain, 482f, 484
net production, 482, 482f
stoichiometry in, 485–486, 486f
productivity and, 468–479
residence times in, 484
trophic levels in, 479–480, 480f, 481f, 483
Energy-diversity hypothesis, 533
Enhydra lutris, 28f, 29–30
Entomorpha muscae, 358
Environmental disturbances
community response to, 435–437, 436f
competition and, 380, 380f
species diversity and, 428–430, 429f
Environmental sex determination, 217–218, 218f
Environmental stochasticity, 307
Environmental variation
in abiotic environments, 95–97
adaptations to, 84–111
anthropogenic sources of, 108–109
in biotic environments, 92–95
dormancy and, 100
energy storage and, 100, 100f
foraging and, 103–106
migration and, 99–100, 99f
I-5
novel, 108–109
phenotypic plasticity and, 89–99, 90f. See also Phenotypic plasticity
phenotypic trade-offs and, 89, 90
rising CO2 levels and, 108–109
spatial, 87–89, 88f
temporal, 87, 87f
Enzyme-substrate affinity, 51–52
Epilimnion, 151
Epiphytes, 13, 13f
Epistasis, 163
Equator
solar, 118
Equilibrium isoclines, 326–327, 327f
Equilibrium theory of island biogeography, 527–530, 528
colonization vs. extinction and, 528–529, 528f, 529f
supporting evidence for, 526–527, 527f, 528f
theoretical basis of, 528–529
Eskers, 516
Estuaries, 153, 153f
Ethiopian region, 535, 535f
Eukaryotes, evolution of, 10–11
Euplotes, phenotypic plasticity and, 92–93, 92f
European kestrel (Falco tinnunculus), 192–193, 193f
European magpie (Pica pica), 192, 192f
European rabbit flea (Spilopsyllus cuniculi), 340
European starling (Sturnus vulgaris), 104–105, 104f
Eusociality, 240–243
castes and, 240
characteristics of, 240–242
evolution of, 242–243
in insects, 240–242
in mole rats, 242, 243f
in termites, 242, 242f
Eutrophication, 501
Evaporation, 76, 120
in hydrologic cycle, 493–494, 493f
Evapotranspiration, 120
in hydrologic cycle, 493–494, 493f
potential, 533
species richness and, 532–533, 533f
Evenly spaced dispersion, 255f, 256
Evolution, 9–20, 160–183
adaptation in, 7, 9–10
of asexual reproduction, 211
of bacteria, 10–11
bottleneck effect in, 167–168, 168f
of camels, 57–58, 534–535
coevolution and, 360–361, 366
convergent, 138, 139f
of eukaryotes, 10–11
founder effect in, 168–169, 169f
of frogs, 85–86
genetic drift in, 166–167, 167f
key innovations in, 180–181, 181f
macroevolution in, 176–181
microevolution in, 173–176
mutation in, 166, 166f
natural selection in. See Natural selection
of parasites, 212–213, 358–362
of predators, 366
random processes in, 166–169
Red Queen hypothesis and, 212–213, 213f
selection in, 169–176. See also Selection
speciation in, 177–180
of treefrogs, 85–86
of treehoppers, 180–181, 181f
of whales, 33–34
Evolutionary fitness. See Fitness
Exotic species, 320
Experiment(s)
manipulative, 21–23, 22f, 194–196, 194f
alternatives to, 23–26
natural, 24
Experimental units, 22
Exploitative competition, 381
Exponential growth model, 272–275, 273f, 275f
Extinction, 26–28, 27f, 305–308, 544–550
asexual reproduction and, 211
background rates of, 545
of dinosaurs, 545
due to human activities, 545–548
causing habitat loss, 550–552
introduced species, 554–555, 555f
overharvesting, 552–554, 553f, 554f
global climate change and, 559
on islands, 528–529, 528f, 529f
mass, 545, 545f
in metapopulations, 310
mutualism and, 409–410
natural, 544–545
in small populations, 306–307, 306f
stochastic models of, 307–308
Extra-pair copulation, 222–223, 223f
Facilitation, in succession, 456–459
Facultative mutualists, 392
Fall bloom, 152
Fall overturn, 152
Farming. See Agriculture
Fecundity, 186
parental survival and, 192–193, 193f
Fecundity rates, in life tables, 285–287
Female choice, evolution of, 224–225, 225f
Fertilization. See also Productivity
of oceans, 479, 479f
Fertilizers
industrial production of, 498
species richness and, 425–426, 425f, 426f
water pollution from, 12, 491–492, 501, 501f
Field capacity, 59, 59f, 60
Fig wasp (Pegoscapus assuetus), 220
Fire-maintained climax communities, 462
First law of thermodynamics, 8
Fish
adaptations of. See Aquatic environments, adaptations to
commercial fishing of
body size and, 203–204
overharvesting in, 552–554, 553f, 554f
declines in, 547, 547f
hyperosmotic, 41, 41f
hyposmotic, 41f, 42
mutualism in, 398–399, 398f, 402–403, 402f, 404
Fitness, 9
altruism and, 237–240
direct, 237
evolutionary, 9
inclusive, 237–240
indirect, 237–240
reproductive, in hermaphrodites vs. separate sexes, 215–216, 215f
Flatworm (Leucochloridium paradoxum), 343, 351
Flixweed (Descurania sophia), 303
Florida panther, habitat corridors for, 537–538, 538f
Florida Wildlife Corridor, 538, 538f
Flowers
of dioecious plants, 214
of monoecious plants, 214
perfect, 214. See also Plants
Flu, 348, 348f
Food availability. See also Resources
competition and, 235, 235f
delayed density dependence and, 304–305
diet mixing and, 107–108, 107f
energy storage and, 100, 100f
foraging and, 103–108
handling time and, 107
metamorphosis and, 199–200, 199f
migration and, 100
optimal diet composition and, 107
overshoots and die-offs and, 299–300, 299f
phenotypic plasticity and, 94
social groups and, 235, 235f
species richness and, 424–426, 424f–426f
territory defense and, 235–236
Food chain, 430
Food chain efficiency, 483
Food webs, 414, 430–435, 431f
guilds in, 430
indirect effects in, 431–434. See also Indirect effects
producers and consumers in, 430
trophic levels in, 430
Foraging, 103–108
central place, 104–105, 104f, 105f
diet mixing and, 107–108, 107f
handling time and, 107
optimal diet composition and, 107
risk-sensitive, 105–106, 106f
in social groups, 234
Foraminafera, 12
Forest(s). See also Tree(s)
acid deposition and, 40
age structure of, 297-298,298f
boreal, 142–143, 143f
gaps in, 461, 461f
historic climate change and, 536–537, 536f
increase in, 551, 552f
logging of
habitat heterogeneity after, 517
habitat loss/fragmentation after, 521–526, 550–552, 551f
nutrient regeneration and, 510–511
succession of, 448, 448f, 458–462. See also Climax communities
tropical seasonal, 147–148, 147f
Forest fires, 560
in climax communities, 462
habitat heterogeneity after, 517, 517f
plant competition after, 380, 380f
Forest tent caterpillar (Malacosoma disstria), 355, 355f
Fossil fuels
in carbon cycle, 495f, 496
greenhouse gases from, 26–27
Founder effect, 168–169, 169f
Freezing, 34–35
adaptations for, 50–51, 103, 103f
Fremont’s leather flower (Clematis fremontii), 249–250, 250f
Frequency-dependent selection, 219
Freshwater wetlands, 152–153
Frogs
declines in, 350–351, 351f, 547, 547f
evolution of, 85–86
pesticide effects on, 438–439, 439f
Fruit flies (Drosophila), 337
Functional response, of predators, 329–331
Fundamental niches, 249
Fungal infections, 349–351, 350f, 351f, 547
Fungi, 13–14, 14f
in decomposition, 504–505, 504f
ectomycorrhizal, 394f, 395
endomycorrhizal, 394–395, 394f
endophytic, 398
mutualism with plants, 394–395, 394f, 398, 402, 403, 404, 408
I-6
mycorrhizal, 394–395, 394f, 402, 403, 404, 408, 408f
Fynbos, 145
Gallic acid, 382
Galls, 349, 349f
Gamma diversity, 518–519
Garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata), 404, 404f
Gases, greenhouse, 26–27, 26–27, 115–116. See also Global climate change/Global warming
Gause, Georgyi, 282, 372–373
Gene(s), 162–163
alleles and, 162–164
self-incompatibility, 216
Gene expression
epistasis and, 163
pleiotropy and, 163
regulation of, 163
Gene pool, 164
Generalists, in mutualism, 392
Generation time, calculation of, 288, 288t
Genetic diversity. See also Biodiversity
global declines in, 548–550
Genetic drift, 166–167, 167f
Genetic mutations, 164–165
in evolution, 166, 166f
purging of, 211
silent, 165
synonymous, 165
Genetic recombination, 165, 165f
Genetic variation
benefits of, 211–212
distribution of, 163, 163f
dominant/recessive alleles and, 163–164
from mutation, 164–165
in parasites and pathogens, 212
pleiotropy and, 162–163
from random assortment, 164
from recombination, 165, 165f
sources of, 164–165
Genotypes, 9
Geographic range, 249–250, 249f, 254, 254f
population abundance and, 260, 260f
Geometric growth model, 273–275, 273f, 275f
Glacier(s)
legacy effects of, 516–517
melting of, 133–134, 443–444
species distribution and, 536–537, 536f
species richness and, 531–532
Glacier Bay, succession in, 443–444, 449, 449f
Gleason, Henry, 418
Global climate change/global warming, 133–134
agriculture and, 157
bark beetles and, 276, 277f
biome boundaries and, 156–157
breeding seasons and, 201–202, 201f
greenhouse effect and, 114–116, 115f
greenhouse gases in, 26–27, 115–116
habitat suitability and, 252–253, 253f
historic trends in, 557–558, 558f
hydrologic cycle and, 494, 494f
life histories and, 200–202, 201f, 202f
population distributions and, 252–253, 253f
predicted changes in, 559, 559f
species decline due to, 557–559, 558f, 559f
species distribution and, 536–537, 536f
Glycerol, 50
Glycoproteins, 50–51
Golden lion tamarind (Leontopithecus rosalia), 551, 551f
Goldenrod, 188f, 189, 190, 380–381, 381f
Goldfish (Carassius auratus), 95, 96f
Gonads, 208
Gondwana, 534, 534f
Good genes hypothesis, 224–225, 225f
Good health hypothesis, 225
Gould, John, 161
Grant, Peter, 161, 170, 289
Grant, Rosemary, 161, 170, 289
Grape cultivation, 137–138, 157
Gray hair-grass (Corynephorus canescens), 97–98, 97f
Gray treefrog, 85–86
Grazer-maintained climax communities, 462, 462f
Greater honeyguide (Indicator indicator), 396
Greater prairie chicken (Tympanuchus cupido), 167–168, 168f
Greater Yellowstone ecosystem
habitat preservation in, 560–561, 560f
wolf reintroduction in, 563–564
Greenhouse effect, 114–116, 115, 115f
Greenhouse gases, 26–27, 115–116. See also Global climate change/Global warming
Grime, J. Philip, 187–188
Gross primary productivity, 469–472, 469f. See also Primary productivity
measurement of, 470–472, 471f
Growing seasons, 141
Growth
determinate, 193
indeterminate, 193
Growth rate, 272
intrinsic, 272
calculation of, 288
Guilds, 430
Gyres, 124
Gyrfalcons, population fluctuations among, 300, 300f
Habitat(s), 17–19, 18f
edge, 522–524, 524f, 551
ideal free distribution among, 262f, 263–265
isolated
allopatric speciation and, 178
in metapopulations, 311–312, 312f
species richness and, 526–530. See also Equilibrium theory of island biogeography
matrix, 525–526
population distributions in, 246–269. See also Population distributions
Habitat corridors, 261–263
creation of, 524–525, 525f, 537–538, 538f
dispersal via, 261–263, 262f, 263f
for elephants, 525, 525f
for Florida panthers, 537–538, 538f
Habitat diversity, species richness and, 426, 427f
Habitat fertility, species richness and, 425–426, 425f, 426f
Habitat fragmentation, 308–309, 308f, 521–526, 550–552, 551f
corridors and. See Habitat corridors
ecotones and, 417–418, 417f, 418f, 522–524
fragment edges and, 522–524, 524f, 551
fragment size and, 522
matrix habitats and, 525–526
stepping stones and, 525, 525f
Habitat heterogeneity, 516–519
legacy effects on, 516–518, 517f, 518f
species diversity and, 518–519
species richness and, 532, 532f
Habitat loss, 26–28, 27f, 247–248, 550–552, 551f
Habitat mutualism, 396
Habitat preservation, 560–561
Habitat suitability, 249–253
ecological envelope and, 252
ecological niche modeling and, 250–252, 252f
fundamental niche and, 249
global warming and, 252–253, 253f
spread of invasive species and, 252, 252f
Hadley cells, 121–122, 121f
Haeckel, Ernst, 3
Hairston, Nelson, 435
Half-life, 557
Handicap principle, 226
Handling time, 107
Haplodiploidy, eusociality and, 240–243
Hardiness zones, 113–114
Hay-scented fern (Dennstaedtia punctiloba), 386–387, 386f
Heat. See also Arid environments
adaptations to, 75–80
by animals, 57–58
by plants, 70f, 71
latent release of, 120
Heat exchange, 76–77
conduction in, 75–76
convection in, 76
evaporation in, 76–77
radiation in, 75–76
Heating of Earth. See also Climate; Temperature, environmental
adiabatic, 120
greenhouse effect and, 114–116, 115f
unequal, 116–129
atmospheric convection currents and, 119–123, 121f–124f
ocean currents and, 123–129, 125f–127f
seasonal variation and, 117–118, 119f
Sun’s angle and path and, 116–117, 116f
Helminths, 16, 347, 351, 353
Hemiparasites, 347
Herbivores, 5, 16, 17t
aquatic, 322–323
competition and, 367–368, 380–381
defenses against, 336–339, 338f
chemical, 336–338, 338f
costs of, 338–339, 338f
structural, 336
tolerance, 338
insect, 321–322, 322f
population fluctuations among, 321–323, 322f, 323f. See also Predator-prey cycles
Heritability, 172
Hermaphrodites, 94–95, 210–211
outcrossing of, 216
reproduction in, 213–216
sequential, 214
simultaneous, 214
Heterotrophs, 14f, 15
Heterozygosity, 163–164
Hibernation, 101, 101f
Homeostasis, 71, 71
negative feedback in, 71–72, 72f
water balance in
nitrogen and, 74
salt and, 73
Homeotherms, 77
Homologous chromosomes, 165
Homozygosity, 163–164
Honeybees (Apis mellifera). See Bees
Horizons, 129
Horizontal gene transfer
Horizontal transmission, of parasites, 354, 354f
Hot deserts, 148, 148f
Housefly (Musca domestica), 358
I-7
Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest, 510–511
Huffaker, Carl, 324
Hummingbirds, 101, 101f
Hunting
active, 331
ambush, 331
overharvesting in, 552–553, 553f, 561–562
sit-and-wait, 331
Hydrogen bonds, 37, 37f
Hydrogen ions
pH and, 38–40, 39f
in weathering, 130–131
Hydrologic cycle, 493–494, 493f
human impacts on, 494, 494f
Hydrothermal vents, 1–2
Hyla versicolor, 85–86
Hymenoptera
eusociality of, 240–243
pollination by, 400
sex life of, 207–208, 240
social organization of, 207–208, 240–241
Hyperosmotic fish, 41, 41f
Hyphae, 13–14
Hypolimnion, 151
Hyposmotic fish, 41f, 42
Hypotheses, 20f, 21–26
proximate, 21
testing of, 21–26. See also Experiment(s)
ultimate, 21
Ice Age, 536
Ice cores, CO2 in, 496, 496f, 497f
Ideal free distribution, 262f, 263–265, 264
Immune response, in parasitic infections, 354, 359
Immunization, 357
Inbreeding depression, 94–95
Inclusive fitness, 237
altruism and, 237–240
calculation of, 239
Independent communities, 418–419, 419f
Independent variables, 74
Indeterminate growth, 193
Indirect effects, 431
between communities, 432
density-mediated, 432
trait-mediated, 433–434, 433f
trophic cascades and, 431–432, 431f
Indirect fitness, 237
altruism and, 237–240
Indirect (kin) selection, 237–240
coefficient of relatedness and, 237–238, 237f
Individual approach, 6
Individuals, as ecological systems, 3
Indomalayan region, 535, 535f
Industrial melanism, 175–176, 176f
Infection(s)
bacterial, 349, 349f
fungal, 349–351, 350f, 351f, 547
protozoal, 349
Infection resistance, 344
Infection tolerance, 344
Infectious diseases
emerging, 351–352, 352f
pathogens and, 344
Inflection point, 281, 281f
Influenza, 348, 348f
transmission of, 352
Infrared radiation, 64–65
greenhouse effect and, 114–116, 115f
photosynthesis and, 64–65
Inhibition, in succession, 456–459
Insect(s)
diapause in, 100–101
eusocial, 240–243. See also Eusociality
herbivorous, 321–322, 322f
mutualism in, 395, 397–398, 397f, 398f, 405–407
Insect outbreaks, plant competition and, 380–381, 381f
Insecticides
lethality of, 438–439, 439f
resistance to, 174
species decline due to, 556
Instrumental value of biodiversity, 543–544
Interdependent communities, 418–420, 420f
Interference competition, 381–382, 381–382, 382f
Intermediate disturbance hypothesis, 428–430, 429f
International Union for Conservation of Nature, 546
Interspecific competition, 368–369
Intertidal succession, 450, 451f, 457–458, 457f
Intertidal zones, 154, 154f, 155f
Intertropical convergence zone, 121–122, 121f, 122f
Intraspecific competition, 368–369
Intrinsic growth rate, 272
calculation of, 288
Intrinsic value of biodiversity, 543, 544
Introduced species, 320, 339–340, 360–362, 431–432
biodiversity declines due to, 554–555, 555f
as conservation strategy, 562–564
Invasive species, 267–268
ecological niche modeling of, 252, 252f
Inverse density dependence, 277
Ions, 37–40
bicarbonate, 45–46, 46f
calcium, 38, 39
carbonate, 45–46, 46f
chloride, 37–38, 38f
hydrogen
pH and, 38–40, 39f
in weathering, 130–131
sodium, 37–38, 38f
transport of, 40
Iron, aquatic productivity and, 478–479, 478f
Irrigation, salinization and, 62
Islands
colonization vs. extinction on, 527–530, 528f, 529f. See also Equilibrium theory of island biogeography
size of, species richness and, 526–530
Isolation
allopatric speciation and, 178
in metapopulations, 311–312, 312f
species richness and, 526–530
Isopod (Caecidotea intermedius), 358–359, 359f
Isozymes, 51–52, 52f, 95
Iteroparity, 195–197, 195f–197f
Ivory bush coral (Oculina arbuscula), 391–392
Jaccard’s index of similarity, 453
Janzen, Dan, 397–398
Jefferson salamander (Ambystoma jeffersonium), 180, 180f
Jewelweed (Impatiens capensis), 93–94
Johnston, David, 450, 454
Joint equilibrium point, 327–328, 327f
Joint population trajectory, 327, 327f
J-shaped curve, 273, 273f
Juglone, 382
K (carrying capacity), 281
Kangaroo rats
competition with ants, 367–368, 373–374, 374f
water balance in, 72–73, 72f
Keeling, Charles, 108
Kelp forests, 12, 12f
Keystone species, 426–428, 428f
Kidney, in desert animals, 73, 73f
Kin selection, 237–240
coefficient of relatedness and, 237–238, 237f
Klamath weed (Hypericum perforatum), 322, 322f
Krakatau eruption, 445, 446f
Lack, David, 191–192
Ladybugs, 335, 335f
Lakes, 149–152, 150f, 151f
circulation in, 151–152, 151f
decomposition in, 509
stratification in, 152, 509
succession in, 451–452, 452f
zones in, 150–151, 150f
Landscape ecology, 516–519
habitat heterogeneity and, 516–517
Landscape metapopulation model, 266, 266f
Latent heat release, 120
Laterization, 132, 132f
Laurasia, 534, 534f
Law of conservation of energy, 8
Law of conservation of matter, 8
Leaching, 129
Leaf decomposition, 504–509, 506f
in aquatic environments, 507–509, 508f
calculating rate of, 507
in terrestrial environments, 506–507, 506f
Leaf-cutter ants, 361–362
Legacy effects, 516–518, 517f, 518f
Legumes, mutualism with bacteria, 395, 395f
Lek, 234, 234f
Lembadion, phenotypic plasticity in, 92–93, 92f
Leopold, Aldo, 563
Lewis’ monkeyflower (Mimulus lewisii), 250, 251f
Liebig’s law of the minimum, 370–371, 371f
Life expectancy, 186
Life history, 184–205, 186
annual vs. perennial, 195
environmental effects on, 198–202
food availability and, 199–200, 199f
global warming and, 200–202, 201f, 202f
metamorphosis in, 199–200, 199f
predation and, 194–195, 194f, 200, 200f
seasonal changes and, 198–199
senescence and, 197–198, 198f
slow-to-fast continuum of, 186–187
stages of, 187f
Life history traits
fecundity, 186
food supply and, 192
longevity, 186
natural selection and, 184–205
parental investment, 186
parity, 186
in plants, 187–189, 188f, 188t
predation and, 194–195, 194f, 200, 200f
principle of allocation and, 189
reproductive success and, 186
selection on, 189–195
trade-offs among, 189–195
growth vs. age of sexual maturity and life span, 193–195
offspring number vs. parental care, 191–192, 192f
offspring number vs. size, 189–191, 190f
succession and, 455–456, 455f
variation in, 186–187
I-8
Life span. See Longevity
Life tables, 285–291, 285t–289t
age classes in, 285
cohort, 288–289, 290f
data collection for, 288–291
fecundity rates in, 285–287
generation time and, 288, 288t
intrinsic growth rate and, 288
net reproductive rate and, 287–288
in sea turtle conservation, 291–292
stable age distribution and, 286–287
static, 290–291, 290f
survival rates in, 285–287
survivorship and, 287, 287t
Lifetime dispersal distance, 259
Light, visible, 65
Lignin, 504
Limestone, 38, 39f, 495
Limestone glades, 250
Limiting resources, 370–371, 371f
Limnetic zone, 150, 150f
Line of best fit, 190–191
Linear regression, 190–191
Line-transect surveys, 257, 257f, 417–419, 418f, 419f
Littoral zone, 150, 150f
Liver flukes, 351
Livestock. See also Animals
breeding of, 548–549, 549f
social behaviors in, 243–244
Local diversity, 518–519
Local mate competition, 220, 220f
Logging
habitat heterogeneity and, 517
habitat loss/fragmentation and, 521–526, 550–552, 551f
nutrient regeneration and, 510–511
Logistic growth equation
for multiple-resources competition, 378, 378f
for single-resource competition, 374–378, 375f, 377f
Logistic growth model, 281–283, 281f–283f
delayed density dependence and, 301–303, 302f
Log-normal distributions, 421, 421f
Longevity, 186
age at sexual maturity and, 193–195, 194f
predation and, 194–195, 198
semelparity vs. iteroparity and, 195–197, 195f–197f
senescence and, 197–198, 198f
Loop of Henle, 73
Lotic systems, 148–149, 149f
Lotka-Volterra model, 325–328
for multiple resources, 378, 378f
for single resource, 374–378
Lubchebco, Jane, 429–430
Lyme disease, 362–364, 524–525
Lynx, population fluctuations among, 317–318, 323, 323f
MacArthur, John, 426
MacArthur, Robert, 426, 519–520, 526, 528
Macquarie Island, introduced species in, 339–340
Macroevolution, 176–181
Mad cow disease, 348
Malaria, 349, 354
Malthus, Thomas, 271, 283
Mammals
declines in, 546, 546f, 547, 547f
eusocial, 240, 242, 243f. See also Eusociality
offspring number vs. size in, 189–191
Mangrove swamps, 153, 153f
Mangrove trees, 153, 153f
Manipulation, 22
Manipulative experiments, 21–23, 22f, 194–196, 194f
alternatives to, 23–26
Mann-Whitney rank test, 406
Maquis, 145
Mark-recapture surveys, 257–258, 257f
Marshes, 153, 153f
Mass extinction events, 545, 545f
Mate availability
local mate competition and, 220, 220f
phenotypic plasticity and, 94–95, 95f
Mate guarding, 223
Mate selection. See Sexual selection
Mathematical models, 25–26
Mating displays, 234, 234f, 238–239
Mating strategies, mixed, 94–95, 216, 216f
Mating systems, 220–223, 221. See also Reproduction
haplodiploid, 240, 241–242
monogamy, 222
polygamy, 221–222
promiscuity, 221
Matorral, 145
Matric (matrix) potential, 59
Matrix habitats, 525–526
Matter, conservation of, 8
Mean, 141
calculation of, 24–25
variance of, 24–25
Measles, 355–356, 356f
Mech, David, 295
Median, 141
Mediterranean climate, 145
Megapascals, 59
Meiosis, 165
cost of, 210, 210f
Melanism, industrial, 175–176, 176f
Mesopredators, 320–321
Metamorphosis
predation and, 200, 200f
resource availability and, 199–200, 199f
Metapopulation dynamics, 247–248, 308–312
basic metapopulation model for, 265–266, 310
colonization in, 310
extinction in, 310
habitat fragmentation in, 308–309, 308f
landscape metapopulation model for, 266, 266f
patch size and isolation in, 310–312, 311f, 312f
rescue effect in, 311
source-sink metapopulation model for, 266
Methane, 115–116
from peat decomposition, 497
from swamps, 495
Mexican cavefish (Astyanax mexicanus), 166–167, 167f
Mexican spadefoot toad (Spea multiplicata), 171–172, 171f
Microcosms, 23
Microevolution, 173–176
Microhabitats, 96–97, 96f
Microrhopala vittata, plant competition and, 380–381, 381f
Migration, 99–100, 99f
Mimicry, 334–335
Batesian, 334, 334f
Müllerian, 334, 335f
Mineral solubility, 37–40, 37f–39f
Mineralization, in nitrogen cycle, 498f, 499
Minimum viable population, 560
Mining, succession after, 463–464
Mixed mating strategies, 94–95, 216, 216f
Mixotrophs, 14f, 15
Mode, 141
Moist continental mid-latitude climates, 128–129, 129f
Moist subtropical mid-latitude climates, 128, 129f
Mole rats, eusociality in, 242, 243f
Monarch butterflies, 99–100, 99f, 338
Monoecious plants, 214, 214f
Monogamy, 222
Moose, population fluctuations among, 295–296, 299, 299f
Mountains, rain shadows and, 128–129, 128f
Mountaintop islands, species richness on, 526–527
Mouse-ear hawkweed (Hieracium pilosella), 97–98, 97f
Muir, John, 443
Müller, Fritz, 334
Müllerian mimicry, 334, 335f
Murie, Olaus, 290–291
Mutations, 164–165
in evolution, 166, 166f
purging of, 211
silent, 165
synonymous, 165
Mutualism, 16–17, 16f, 17t, 390–411
in animals, 395–396
with other animals, 396, 396f
with protozoans, 395–396
changing to predation, 402–403, 402f
cheating and, 403, 403f
community effects of, 404–408, 405f, 408f
coral-crab, 391–392
ecosystem effects of, 407–408, 408
extinction and, 409–410
facultative mutualists in, 392
functions of, 392–393
habitat, 396, 396f
negative interactions in, 402–403, 402f
obligate mutualists in, 392
in plants
with bacteria, 395, 395f, 398
for defense, 397–398, 397f, 398f
with fungi, 394–395, 394f, 402
with insects, 397–398, 397f, 398f, 405–407
in pollination, 400–401, 400f, 401f
in seed dispersal, 401, 409–410, 410f
specialists in, 392
in species distribution, 404, 404f
species diversity and, 404–405, 405f, 408f
statistical tests for, 406
Mycobacterium tuberculosis, drug-resistant, 181–182
Mycorrhizal fungi, 394–395, 394f, 402, 403, 404, 408, 408f
Myers, Norman, 541
Myxoma virus, 361–362, 362f, 431–342
Natural experiments, 24
Natural resources. See Resources
Natural selection, 9, 10f, 174–176. See also Selection
adaptation and, 7, 9–10
in Darwin’s finches, 161–162
frequency-dependent, 219
life history traits and, 184–205
phenotypic plasticity and, 91
Nature reserves, design of, 529–530, 530f, 537–538, 538f. See also Habitat corridors
Nearctic region, 535, 535f
Negative correlation, 102
Negative density dependence, 277–278, 277f–280f, 280–281
in animals, 277–278, 278f
I-9
in plants, 278, 279f
Negative feedback, in homeostasis, 71–72, 72f
Nematodes, 347, 359
Neotropical region, 535, 535f
Neritic zone, 155, 155f
Nest parasitism, 524, 524f
Net primary productivity, 469–472, 469f, 470f. See also Primary productivity
in aquatic environments, 476–477
consumption by whales, 487–488
estimation of, 487–488
global patterns of, 474, 475f
measurement of, 470–472, 471f
in terrestrial ecosystems, 474–476, 476f
variability of, 474–479
Net production efficiency, 482, 482f
calculation of, 484
Net reproductive rate, calculation of, 287–288, 287t
Net secondary productivity, 473
Niches, 19–20, 19f
fundamental, 249
realized, 249
Nicholson, A. J., 304
Nitrates, from nitrogen fixation, 395, 456, 497–498, 498f
Nitrification, 498, 498f
Nitrogen
bacterial conversion to ammonia, 395, 456
as limiting resource, 477–478, 477f, 499–450, 499f
productivity and
aquatic, 477–478, 477f
terrestrial, 499–500, 499f
rising levels of, 499–500
in soil, 58
in water balance, 74
Nitrogen balance, 74
Nitrogen cycle, 497–500, 498f
assimilation in, 498–499
denitrification in, 498f, 499
human impacts on, 499–500, 499f
mineralization in, 498f, 499
nitrification in, 498, 498f
nitrogen fixation in, 395, 456, 497–498, 498f
Nitrous oxide, as greenhouse gas, 115–116
Nominal variables, 74
Non-native species, 320
Nonrenewable resources, 369–370
Northeast trade winds, 123
Northern elephant seal (Mirounga angustirostris), 561–562, 561f
Numerical response, of predators, 331
Nutrient cycling, 490–513
in carbon cycle, 494–497, 495f
experimental studies of, 510–511, 511f
in hydrologic cycle, 493–494, 493f
in nitrogen cycle, 497–500, 498f
in phosphorus cycle, 500–501, 500f
Nutrient regeneration
in aquatic environments, 507–509, 508f
logging and, 510–511
in terrestrial environments, 501–507
from decomposition, 504–507, 504f–506f
from weathering, 502–504, 503f
Obligate mutualists, 392
Observations, 24
Ocean(s), 154–156, 155f
aphotic zone in, 155f, 156
decomposition in, 509
fertilizing, 479, 479f
hydrothermal vents in, 1–2
neritic zone in, 155, 155f
oceanic zone in, 155–156, 155f
photic zone in, 155f, 156
productivity of
consumption by whales, 487–488
silicon and iron in, 478–479, 478f
species richness in
geographic location and, 530–531, 531f
water temperature and, 533–534
stratification in, 509
Ocean currents, 123–129
El Niño–Southern oscillation, 125–126, 126f
global warming and, 134
gyres and, 124–125
thermohaline circulation and, 126–127, 127f
upwelling and, 125, 125f
Ocean temperature, habitat suitability and, 252–253, 253f
Oceanic zone, 155–156, 155f
Odum, Eugene, 450, 454
Offspring sex ratio, 218–219, 218f
Omnivores, 430
Omphalocarpum procerum, 402
On the Origin of Species (Darwin), 2–3, 9, 173
Oosting, Henry, 448
Optimum conditions, 51–52
Organic matter, decomposition of, 504–509. See also Decomposition
Oriental region, 535, 535f
Osmoregulation, 41
Osmosis, 41
Osmotic potential, 41
Osmotic pressure, water uptake and, 60–61
Otters, 28f, 29–30
Outcrossing, 216
Overharvesting, 552–553, 553f, 554f
prevention of, 561–562
Overshoots, 298–300, 298f, 299f
Oxbow lakes, 150
Oxpeckers, mutualism in, 399
Oxygen, solubility of, 47–49, 48f, 49f
Oxygenation, acclimation and, 91, 98–99
Ozone, 115–116
Paine, Robert, 427
Painted trillium (Trillium undulatum), 401–402
Palearctic region, 535, 535f
Pampas, 145
Pangaea, 534, 534f
Paramecia
competition among, 372, 372f
logistic growth of, 282–283, 282f
Parasite(s), 16, 17t, 342–365
adaptation to host by, 358–359, 358f, 359f
apparent competition and, 383–384, 383f
drug-resistant, 174, 181–182
ectoparasites, 345–346, 346f, 346t
endoparasites, 346, 346t, 347–352
evolution of, 212–213, 358–362
genetic variation in, 212
habitats of, 345, 345f
host adaptation to, 359, 360f
immune response to, 354, 359
infecting social groups, 234–235, 235f
jumping between species, 354
modes of entry into host, 354
mutualism for, 398–399, 398f
pathogenic, 344. See also Pathogens
plants as, 13
positive density dependence in, 280
Red Queen hypothesis and, 212–213
reservoir species for, 354
transmission of, 354–355, 354f
types of, 345–352
vectors for, 354f, 355
Parasite load, 344
Parasite-host population dynamics, 355–357, 355f–357f
S-I-R model of, 356–357, 357f
Parasitoids, 16, 17t, 320
Parent material, 129
Parental care, effects on parental survival, 192–193, 193f
Parental investment, 186
Parity, 186
Parthenogenesis, 209–210, 209f
Patch size, in metapopulation dynamics, 310–312, 311f, 312f
Pathogens, 16, 344. See also Parasite(s)
apparent competition and, 384, 384f
drug-resistant, 174, 181–182
genetic variation in, 212
infecting social groups, 234–235, 235f
Pearl, Raymond, 283
Peat decomposition, methane from, 497
Pelagic zone, 150, 150f
PEP carboxylase, 68, 69f
Peppered moths, 175, 176f
Perennial life history, 195
Perfect flowers, 214
Permafrost, 133, 142, 142f
Pesticides
lethality of, 438–439
resistance to, 174
species decline due to, 556
pH, 38–40, 39f
Phenotypes, 9–10
heritability of, 172
Phenotypic plasticity, 89–99, 90f. See also Environmental variation
in abiotic environments, 95–99
acclimation and, 91, 98–99
advantages of, 89–91
in biotic environments, 92–95
competition and, 93–94
dormancy and, 100–103, 101f, 103f
enemies and, 92–93, 92f
energy storage and, 100, 100f
environmental cues and, 91
foraging and, 103–108
inbreeding depression and, 94–95
mate availability and, 94–95, 95f
migration and, 99–100, 99f
natural selection and, 91
novel variation and, 108–109
in plants, 93, 93f
response speed and, 91
reversibility and, 91
temperature and, 95–97
Phenotypic trade-offs, 89, 90
Phosphate, 500–501, 500f
Phosphorus
in algal blooms, 501, 501f
aquatic productivity and, 477–478, 477f
Phosphorus cycle, 500–501, 500f, 501f
Photic zone, 155f, 156
Photoperiod, 199
Photorespiration, 67
Photosynthesis, 11–13, 13f
in algae, 12
in aquatic plants, 45–46
in bacteria, 11–12
C3, 66–67, 68f, 69f
C4, 67–69, 68f, 69f
Calvin cycle in, 66–70, 67f
CAM, 69–70, 69f
carbon cycle and, 494–497, 495f
carbon dioxide in, 66–70, 67f, 471–472, 494–495
carotenoids in, 66, 66f
chloroplasts in, 65–66, 65f
I-10
events in, 66–70, 67f
light reactions in, 66, 67f
solar energy for, 64–66
Photosynthetically active region, 65
Phylogenetic trees, 177
Phytoplankton, 150. See also Algae
pesticide effects on, 438–439, 439f
zooplankton and, 479
Pioneer species, 445, 455–456, 455t
Plants, 12–13
air, 13, 13f
alleopathy in, 382, 382f, 383f
aquatic
photosynthesis in, 45–46
salt balance in, 43–45, 43f
breeding of, 174, 174f. See also Reproduction
artificial selection in, 173–174, 173f, 174f, 180, 180f
decline in genetic diversity due to, 548–549, 549f
polyploidy in, 180, 180f
C3, 66–67, 68f, 69f
cotton as, 81
C4, 67–69, 68f, 69f
CAM, 68f, 69–70, 69f
carnivorous, 13, 13f
competitor, 188t, 189
crop. See Agriculture
decomposition of, 504–507, 504f–506f
defenses against herbivores, 336–339, 338f
dioecious, 214–215, 214f
ectoparasites on, 347
endoparasites in, 347–351
evapotranspiration in, 120
flowering
global warming effects on, 201–202, 202f
photoperiod and, 199
hardiness zones for, 113–114
hermaphroditic, 210–211, 213–216, 214f–216f
iteroparous, 195f, 196, 196f
life history traits of, 187–189, 188f, 188t. See also Life history traits
medicinal, 359, 360f
monoecious, 214, 214f
mutualism in
with bacteria, 395, 395f, 398
for defense, 397–398, 397f, 398f
with fungi, 394–395, 394f, 398, 402, 403, 404, 408
with insects, 395, 397–398, 397f, 398f, 405–407
in pollination, 400–401, 400f, 401f
in seed dispersal, 401, 409–410, 410f
nutrient uptake by, 58
parasitic, 13
phenotypic plasticity in, 93, 93f, 97–98
photosynthesis in. See Photosynthesis
positive density dependence in, 280–281, 280f
reproduction in, 188–189, 208–209
rising CO2 levels and, 108-109
ruderal, 188t, 189
sclerophyllous, 145
seed size vs. number in, 189–191, 190f
semelparous, 195–197, 195f–197f
stress-tolerant, 188–189, 188f, 188t
succession of. See Succession
of terrestrial biomes, 138–140. See also Terrestrial biomes
transpiration in, 62–64, 63f
water uptake by, 58–62, 59–62, 59f
osmotic pressure and, 60–62
soil characteristics and, 59–60, 59f, 60f
Plasticity. See Phenotypic plasticity
Pleiotropy, 163
Podsolization, 131–132, 131f
Poikilotherms, 77
Poison dart frogs (Ranitomeya), 334, 335f
Polar cells, 122
Polar climates, 129, 129f
Polar ice caps, melting of, 133, 558–559, 558f
Polar molecules, 37
Polar regions, species richness in, 530–531
Pollen, carbon dating of, 447
Pollination, mutualism in, 400–401, 400f, 401f
Pollution
air
acid deposition and, 40
in natural selection, 175–176, 176f
biomagnification in, 556, 556f
contaminant half-life in, 557
species decline due to, 556–557, 556f
thermal, 50, 53
water
acid deposition and, 40
from fertilizer runoff, 12, 491–492, 501, 501f
thermal, 50, 53
Polyandry, 222
Polygamy, 221–222
Polygenic traits, 163, 163f
Polygyny, 222
Polyploid species, 179, 180f
Pond(s), 149–152, 150f
circulation in, 151–152
stratification in, 152
succession in, 451–452, 452f
zones in, 150–151, 150f
Pond snails (Physa acuta), 95, 95f
Pools, ecosystem, 5–6
Population(s), 4
doubling time for, 275–276, 275f
as ecological systems, 4–5
minimum viable, 560
spatial structure of, 248
Population approach, 7
Population cycles, 300–305. See also Population fluctuations
density-dependent, 300–303, 302f
energy storage and, 303–304, 304f
in laboratory populations, 303–305
parasite-host, 355–357, 355f–357f
predation and, 317–318, 323–331. See also Predator-prey cycles
Population density, 254–255, 254f. See also Density
body size and, 260–261, 260f
overshoots and die-offs and, 298–300, 298f, 299f
population growth and, 277–283, 277f–280f, 282f
Population distributions, 247–269
abundance and, 254, 259–260
geographic range and, 260, 260f
density and. See Population density
dispersal and. See Dispersal
dispersion and, 255–256, 255f
fundamental niches and, 249
geographic range and, 249–250, 249f, 254, 254f, 260, 260f
global warming and, 252–253, 253f
habitat suitability and, 249–253
quantification of, 256–259
census in, 256
surveys in, 256–258, 258f
realized niches and, 249
spatial structure and, 248, 265–266
subpopulations in, 265
Population fluctuations, 294–315
age structure and, 297–298, 298f
cyclic, 300–305, 300f. See also Population cycles
extinction and, 305–308
metapopulation dynamics and, 308–312
natural, 296–297, 296f, 297f
parasite-host, 355–357, 355f–357f
predation and, 295–296, 298–299, 299f, 317–320, 323–331. See also Predator-prey cycles
Population growth, 270–293
age structure and, 283–284, 284f
carrying capacity and, 281, 282f
deterministic models of, 307
exponential, 272–275, 275f
geometric, 273–275, 273f, 275f
growth rate and, 272
limits on
density-dependent, 277–281, 277f–280f
density-independent, 276, 276f
logistic, 281–283, 281f–283f
overview of, 271–272
population size and, 281–283
projection of, 283
life tables in, 285–291
stochastic models of, 307–308
survivorship curves and, 285, 285f
Positive correlation, 102
Positive density dependence, 278–281, 280f
Potential evapotranspiration, 533, 533f
Pox viruses, 347
Prairies, 145
habitat loss in, 551
Precipitation
acid deposition from, 40
in hydrologic cycle, 393f, 493–494
species richness and, 532–533, 533f
Predator(s), 16, 17t
adaptations to, 85–86, 92–93
age at sexual maturity and, 200
competition and, 380
defenses against, 85–86, 92–93, 331–336
behavioral, 331–332, 332f, 334
chemical, 333–335, 333f, 334f
costs of, 334–335, 335f
counter-adaptations and, 336, 336f
crypsis, 332, 332f
mimicry, 333–334, 334f, 335f
structural, 332–333, 333f, 334
dilution effect and, 233–234, 233f
functional response of, 329–331, 329f
type I, 329, 329f
type II, 329–330, 329f
type III, 330, 330f
handling time and, 107
hunting strategies of, 331
indirect effects of, 431–432, 432f
introduced, 320, 339–340, 360–362, 431–432, 554–555, 563–564
life history traits of, 194–195, 194f, 200, 200f
life span and, 194–195, 194f, 198
mesopredators, 320–321
metamorphosis and, 200, 200f
mutualism and, 402–403, 402f
in natural selection, 175, 175f, 176f
optimal diet composition for, 107
parasites as, 320
parasitoids as, 16, 17t, 320
population fluctuations and, 295–296, 298–299, 299f, 317–320, 323–331
search image and, 330
social groups and, 233–235, 233f
top, 320, 561
Predator-prey cycles, 323–331
equilibrium isoclines for, 326–327, 327f
experimental, 324–325, 324f, 325f
I-11
functional response in, 329–331, 329f
introduced species and, 320, 339–340, 563–564
joint population trajectory for, 327–328, 327f
mathematical models of, 325–328
numerical response in, 331
oscillations in, 328, 328f
prey switching and, 330–331
zero growth isoclines for, 326–327, 327f
Predictions, 20f, 21
Preston, Frank, 421
Prey. See also Predator-prey cycles
cryptic, 332, 332f
defenses of, 85–86, 92–93, 331–336. See also Predator(s), defenses against
warning coloration in, 333
Prey switching, 330–331
Prickly pear cactus, 321–322, 322f
Primary consumers, 430
Primary productivity, 468. See also Productivity
gross, 469–470, 469f
measurement of, 470–472
biomass changes in, 470–471
CO2 uptake and release in, 471–472, 471f
remote sensing in, 472
net. See Net primary productivity
secondary productivity and, 472–474, 473f
Primary sexual characteristics, 223–224
Primary succession, 447, 447f
vs. secondary succession, 448
Principle of allocation, 189. See also Life history traits, trade-offs among
Prions, 348–349, 354
Priority effect, 456
Producer(s), 14f, 15
in food webs, 430
Producer biomass, measurement of, 470–471
Productivity
in aquatic environments, 476–479, 477f
phosphorus and nitrogen in, 477–478, 477f
silicon and iron in, 478–479
primary, 468. See also Primary productivity
secondary, 472–474, 473f, 474f
net, 473
species richness and, 424–426, 424f–426f, 499–450
in terrestrial environments, 474–746, 476f, 477f
Profundal zone, 150, 150f
Prokaryotes, 4. See also Bacteria
evolution of, 10–11
horizontal gene transfer in, 4
Promiscuity, 221
Protists, 12
competition among, 372, 372f
Protozoal infections, 349
Provisioning services, 543, 543f
Proximate hypotheses, 21
Pyramid of biomass, 480, 480f, 481f
Pyramid of energy, 480, 480f, 481f
Q10, 49
Queens, 240
R2 (coefficient of determination), 190–191
Rabbits
as introduced species, 339–340, 360–362, 431–432
myxomatosis in, 361–362, 362f, 432–432
Radiation, 75
electromagnetic, 64
greenhouse effect and, 114–116, 115f
in photosynthesis, 64–66, 64f
of heat, 75–76
infrared, 64–65
solar. See Solar energy
ultraviolet, 64–65
Radiolarians, 12
Rain, acid, 40
Rain shadows, 128–129, 128f
Rainforests. See also Forest(s)
temperate, 143–144, 143f
tropical, 146–147, 147f
Random assortment, 164
Random dispersion, 255f, 256
Randomization, 22
Rank-abundance curves, 421, 421f
Rays, osmoregulation in, 42, 42f
Realized niches, 249
Recessive alleles, 163–164
Recipients, in social interactions, 236, 236f
Recombination, 165, 165f
Red deer (Cervus elaphus), 218, 218f
Red maple (Acer rubrum), 387–388
Red Queen hypothesis, 212–213, 213f
Red tides, 491
Red-backed salamander, 467–468
Red-ridged clinging crab (Mithrax forceps), 391–392
Reed, Lowell, 283
Regional diversity, 518–519
Regional species pool, 519
Regression, 118, 190–191
linear, 190–191
Regulating services, 543–544
Relative abundance, 420–421
Remote sensing, 472
Renewable resources, 369–370
Replication, experimental, 22
Reproduction. See also Mate; Mating
age of maturity vs. life span and, 193–195
asexual, 208–210, 211
bacterial, 227–228
benefits of, 211–213
genetic variation, 211–212
purging mutations, 211
by binary fission, 209
breeding once vs. many times and, 195–197, 195f–197f
breeding seasons in, global warming and, 201–202, 201f
clones in, 209, 210
costs of, 94–95, 210–211
in hermaphrodites vs. separate sexes, 210–211, 210f, 215–216, 215f
extra-pair copulation and, 222–223, 223f
fecundity and parental care vs. parental
survival and, 192–193, 193f
female choice and, 224–225, 225f
global warming and, 201–202, 201f
good gene hypothesis and, 224–225, 225f
good health hypothesis and, 225
habitat quality and, 264–265, 265f
in hermaphrodites, 94–95, 210–211, 213–216
in honeybees, 207–208
local mate competition and, 220, 220f
mixed mating strategies for, 94–95, 216, 216f
offspring number vs. parental care and, 191–192, 192f
offspring number vs. size and, 189–191, 190f
by parthenogenesis, 209–210, 209f
in salmon, 185–186, 187
selfing in, 216
semelparity vs. iteroparity in, 195–197, 195f–197f
senescence and, 197–198, 198f
sexual, 208
sexual conflict and, 226, 227f
sexual selection and, 223–227. See also Sexual selection
vegetative, 188–189, 208–209
Reproductive fitness. See also Fitness
in hermaphrodites vs. separate sexes, 215–216, 215f
Rescue effect, 311
Reservoir species, 354
Residence times
biomass, 485
energy, 484
Resources, 369–372. See also Food availability
for animals, 369
competition for. See Competition
definition of, 369
depletion of, 26–28, 27f
interaction among, 371–372, 371f
limiting, 370–371, 371f
nonrenewable, 369–370
overharvesting of, 552–553, 553f, 554f, 561–562
for plants, 369
renewable, 369–370
species richness and, 424–426, 424f–426f
Respiration
in carbon cycle, 494–495, 495f
primary productivity and, 469–472
Respired energy, 472, 473f
Rhizobium bacteria, mutualism with plants, 395, 395f
Rickettsia, reproduction in, 228
Riparian zone, 149
Risk-sensitive foraging, 105–106, 106f
Rivers, 148–149, 149f
autochthonous inputs to, 149
decomposition in, 509
Rocks, weathering of, 130–131
Root pressure, 62, 62
Rotation of Earth, Coriolis effect and, 122–123, 123f, 124f
Roundworms, 351
as plant ectoparasites, 347
Rubisco (RuBP carboxylase-oxidase), 66–67, 67f, 69f, 81
Ruderals, 188, 188t
Ruff (Philomachus pugnax), 234, 234f
Runaway sexual selection, 225–226
Rust, 350
Salamanders
earthworms and, 467–468
embryonic oxygen in, 48, 48f
mutualism with algae, 393
polyploidy in, 180, 180f
Salinity, phenotypic plasticity and, 98
Salinization, 62
Salmon (Oncorhynchus), reproduction in, 185–186, 187
Salt
in aquatic organisms, 40–45, 98
solubility of, 37–38, 38f
structure of, 37–38
in water balance, 72–74
Salt glands, 43–45, 43f, 73, 73f
Salt marshes, 153, 153f
Sample standard deviation, 44
Sample variance, 25
Sand, 60, 60f, 61f
I-12
Sand dunes, succession of, 445–446, 447, 447f, 448
Sand sedge (Carex arenaria), 97–98, 97f
Saturation, 38
Saturation point, 119–120, 119f
Savannas, 147–148, 147f
Scarlet monkeyflower (Mimulus cardinalis), 250, 251f
Scavengers, 17
Schindler, David, 477–478
Scientific method, 20–26, 20f. See also Experiment(s)
hypotheses in, 20f, 21–26
observations in, 20–21, 20f
predictions in, 20f, 21
steps in, 20f
Sclerophyllous vegetation, 145
Sea otters, 28f, 29–30
Sea slugs, mutualism with algae, 393, 393f
Sea stars (Mytilus californianus), 427, 428f
Sea turtles, decline of, 291–292
Search images, 330
Seasonal forests
temperate, 144, 144f
tropical, 147–148, 147f
Seasons, 117–118, 119f
life history and, 198–199
Secondary consumers, 430
Secondary productivity, 472–474, 474f
net, 473
Secondary sexual characteristics, 223–224
Secondary succession, 447–448, 448f
vs. primary succession, 448
Sediment
limestone, 38, 39f, 495
nutrient regeneration in, 507–509
vertical mixing of, 509
Sedimentation
in rivers, lakes, and oceans, 509
in streams and wetlands, 508–509, 508f
Seed(s)
dispersal of, mutualism in, 401, 409–410, 410f
size vs. number of, 189–191, 190f
Seed banks, 550, 550f
Selection, 169–176
artificial, 173–174, 173f, 174f
direct, 237
directional, 170, 171f
frequency-dependent, 219
kin (indirect), 237–240
on life history traits, 189–195
natural. See Natural selection
response to, 172
sexual, 223–227. See also Sexual selection
stabilizing, 169–170, 170f
strength of, 172
Selective abortion, 218
Self-incompatibility genes, 216
Selfing, 216
inbreeding depression and, 94–95
Selfishness, 236, 236f
Self-thinning curve, 278, 279f
Semelparity, 195–197, 195f–197f
Semipermeable membranes, 40
Senescence, 197–198, 198f
Sequential hermaphrodites, 214
Seral stage, 444–445, 449
Serpentine soils, 417–418, 417f, 418f
Sex chromosomes, 216–217
Sex determination, 216–218
environmental, 217–218, 218f
genetic, 216–217
haplodiploid, 240–243
Sex ratios, 216–220
highly skewed, 219–220
local mate competition and, 220
offspring, 218–219, 218f
Sexual characteristics
primary, 223
secondary, 223–224
Sexual conflict, 226, 227f
Sexual dimorphism, 223–234
Sexual maturity, age at
life span and, 193–194, 194f
predation and, 200
Sexual reproduction, 208. See also Reproduction
Sexual selection, 223–227
displays and, 234, 234f, 238–239, 238f
female choice and, 224–225, 225f
good gene hypothesis for, 224–225, 225f
good health hypothesis for, 225
handicap principle and, 226
material vs. nonmaterial benefits in, 224–225, 225f
primary sexual characteristics and, 223–224
runaway, 225–226
secondary sexual characteristics and, 223–224
sexual conflict and, 226, 227f
sexual dimorphism and, 223–224
Shannon’s index (Shannon-Wiener index), 422–423
Sharks, osmoregulation in, 42, 42f
Sheep blowfly (Lucilia cuprina), 304–305, 305f
Shortgrass prairies, 145
Silent mutations, 165
Silicon, aquatic productivity and, 478–479, 478f
Silt, 60, 60f, 61f
Silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix), 554–555, 555f
Simberloff, Daniel, 527, 528
Simpson’s index, 422–423
Simultaneous hermaphrodites, 214
Sink subpopulations, 266
S-I-R model, 356–357, 357f
Sit-and-wait hunting, 331
Skunk cabbage, 78
Slobodkin, Lawrence, 435
Small balsam (Impatiens parviflora), 371–372, 371f
Smith, Frederick, 435
Snails
Red Queen hypothesis and, 212–213, 213f
reproduction in, 95, 95f, 212–213, 213f
Snowshoe hares (Lepus americanus), population fluctuations among, 317–318, 323, 323f
Sociable weaver (Philetairus socius), 170, 170f
Social behaviors, 230–245, 232
altruism, 236f, 237
kin selection and, 237–240
of ants, 361–362
artificial selection on, 244
of bees, 207–208
benefits of, 233
for feeding, 234
for mating, 234
for survival, 233–234, 233f
cooperation, 236, 236f
costs of
competition, 235
disease, 234–235
increased predation, 234
territory defense, 235–236
in domesticated animals, 243–244
dominance hierarchy and, 236
donors and recipients in, 236, 236f
selfishness, 236, 236f
spitefulness, 236–237, 236f
Sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus kistuch), reproduction in, 185–186, 187
Sodium chloride
in aquatic organisms, 40–45, 98
solubility of, 37–38, 38f
structure of, 37–38
in water balance, 72–74
Sodium ions, 37–38, 38f
Soil, 129–132
acidic, 131–132
cation exchange capacity of, 131
components of, 129
fertility of, 131
field capacity of, 59, 59f, 60
formation of, 129–132
laterization in, 132, 132f
leaching in, 129
podsolization in, 131–132, 131f
weathering in, 130–131
nutrient regeneration in, 501–507
nutrient uptake from, 58
as parent material, 129
particle size in, 60, 60f, 61f
permafrost, 133, 142
salinization of, 62
serpentine, 417–418, 417f, 418f
structure of, 60, 60f
in terrestrial biomes, 143–148. See also Terrestrial biomes
water uptake from, 58–62, 59f
water-holding capacity of, 58–60
wilting point of, 59–60, 59f
Soil horizons, 129, 130f
Soil matrix, 59
Solar energy
greenhouse effect and, 114–116, 115f
in photosynthesis, 64–66, 64f
species richness and, 532–533, 533f
Solar equator, 118
Soldiers, 242
Solubility
of carbon dioxide, 45–46, 46f
of minerals, 37–40, 37f–39f
of oxygen, 47–49, 48f
of sodium chloride, 37–38, 38f
Solutes, 40
concentration of, 40–41, 41f
Source subpopulations, 266
Source-sink metapopulation model, 266
Sousa, Wayne, 450
Southeast trade winds, 123
Southern toad (Anaxyrus terrestris), 380, 381f
Spadefoot toad (Scaphiopus holbrookii), 380, 381f
Spanish flu, 348
Spatial structure, 248, 265–266
basic metapopulation model of, 265–266
landscape metapopulation model of, 266, 266f
source-sink metapopulation model of, 266
of subpopulations, 265–266
Spatial variation, 87–89, 88f
temporal variation and, 88–89, 88f
Specialists, in mutualism, 392
Speciation, 177–180
allopatric, 178, 178f, 179f
sympatric, 178–179, 179f, 180f
Species, 3–4
classification of
by energy use, 15, 15f
by interaction, 15–17, 16f, 17t
climax, 445, 455–456, 455f, 455t
cosmopolitan, 254
endemic, 254
exotic, 320
I-13
extinction of, 26–28, 27f
interactions of, 15–17
introduced, 320, 339–340, 360–362, 431–432
biodiversity declines due to, 554–555, 555f
as conservation strategy, 562–564
invasive, 267–268
ecological niche modeling of, 252, 252f
keystone, 426–428, 428f
pioneer, 445, 455–456, 455f, 455t
populations of, 4–5
regional pools of, 519
reintroduction of, 562–564
reservoir, 354
Species abundance. See Abundance
Species accumulation curve, 522–523
Species distribution
in biogeographic regions, 535–536, 535f
continental drift and, 534–535, 534f
glacier retreat and, 536–537, 536f
independent vs. interdependent, 418–420, 419f, 420f
mutualism in, 404, 404f
zonation and, 414–416, 415f, 416f
Species diversity. See also Biodiversity; Species richness
abundance and, 420–422. See also Abundance
beta, 519
calculation of, 422–423
disturbances and, 428–430, 429f
global declines in, 545–548, 547f
habitat diversity and, 426
habitat fragmentation and, 521–526
habitat heterogeneity and, 518–519
keystone species and, 426–428, 428f
local (alpha), 518–519
mutualism and, 404–405, 405f, 408f
regional (gamma), 518–519
resource availability and, 424–426, 424f–426f
Shannon’s index of, 422–423
Simpson’s index of, 422–423
succession and, 454, 454f
Species evenness, 421–422
Species richness, 420–422. See also Abundance; Biodiversity; Species diversity
area and, 519–521, 519f, 520f
community stability and, 435–436, 436f
energy-diversity hypothesis for, 533
equilibrium theory of island biogeography, 526–530
global patterns of, 530–534, 531f
geographic location and, 530–532, 531f
habitat heterogeneity and, 532, 532f
isolation and, 526–530, 526f–529f
nitrogen levels and, 499–500, 499f
in oceans, geographic location and, 530–531, 531f
precipitation and, 532–533, 533f
productivity and, 424–426, 424f–426f, 499–450
solar energy and, 532–533, 533f
succession and, 454, 454f
Species sorting, 519
Species-area curve, 520, 520f
Species-area relationships, 519–534, 519f, 520, 520f
isolation and, 526–530, 526f–529f
equilibrium theory of island biogeography and, 526–534, 528f–529f
estimation of species per area, 522–523
habitat fragmentation and, 521–526
species accumulation curve and, 522–523
species-area curve and, 520, 520f
nature reserve design and, 529–530, 530f
Spermatophore, 222
Spiders, social, 413–414, 414f
Spitefulness, 236–237, 236f
Spring overturn, 152
Spring peeper (Pseudacris crucifer), 380, 381f
S-shaped curve, 281, 281f
Stabilizing selection, 169–170, 170f
Stable age distribution, 286–287
Stable limit cycle, 303
Standard deviation, 44–45
Standard error of the mean, 44–45
Standing crop, 469
in pyramid of biomass, 480–481, 481f
Static life tables, 290–291, 290f
Statistical significance, 337
Steppes, 145
Stepping stones, 525, 525f
Stickleback fish (Gasterosteus aculeatus), 264, 264f
Stochastic models, 307
Stoichiometry, ecological, 485–486, 486f
Stomata, 64, 64f, 68f, 97
photorespiration and, 67
Stratification, 152
in ponds and lakes, 152
vertical mixing and, 509
Streams, 148–149
allochthonous inputs to, 149, 508–509, 508f
succession in, 450–451, 451f
Strength of selection, 172
Stress tolerance, in plants, 188–189, 188f, 188t
Strip mine succession, 463–464
Structural defenses, 332–333
costs of, 334
against herbivores, 336
Subpopulations, 265
in metapopulations, 308–312
sink, 266
source, 266
Subtropical deserts, 148, 148f
Succession, 442–465, 444
adaptations in, 455–456, 455f
in aquatic environments, 450–454
intertidal, 450
stream, 450–451, 451f
chronosequences in, 446
climax communities in, 445, 448, 448f, 459–462
facilitation in, 456–459
forest, 458–459
inhibition in, 456–459
intertidal, 450, 451f, 457–458, 457f
in lakes and ponds, 451–452, 452f
mechanisms of, tests for, 457–459
observation of, 445–447
direct, 445, 446f
indirect, 445–446, 447f
pioneer species in, 445
priority effect in, 456
promotion of, 463–464
seral stage of, 444–445, 449
species diversity and, 454, 454f
strip mine, 463–464
in terrestrial environments, 447–450
animal, 450, 450f
complexity of, 448–450, 449f
primary, 447, 447f, 448
secondary, 447–448, 448f
tolerance in, 456–459
traits of early- vs. late-succession species and, 455–456, 455f
Supercooling, 51
Supporting services, 544
Surveys, 256–258
area- and volume-based, 256–257, 257f
line-transect, 257, 257f
mark-recapture, 257–258, 257f
Survival rates, calculation of, 285–287, 287t
Survivorship curves, 285, 285f
Susceptible-Infected-Resistant (S-I-R) model, 356–357, 357f
Svalbard Global Seed Vault, 550, 550f
Swamp(s), 152–153
mangrove, 153, 153f
Swamp gas, 495
Swine flu, 348
Symbiotic relationships, 17
Sympatric speciation, 178–179, 179f, 180f
Symplocarpus foetidus, 78
Synedra diatoms, 370–371, 371f
Synonymous mutations, 165
Syzygium mamillatum, 409–410
Tahitian noni (Morinda citrifolia), 337, 338f
Taiga, 142–143, 143f
Tallgrass prairies, 145, 551
Tangle web spider (Anelosimus studiosus), 413–414
Tansley, Arthur, 373
Temperate (cold) deserts, 145–146, 146f
Temperate grassland/cold desert biome, 145–146, 146f
Temperate rainforests, 143–144, 143f
Temperate seasonal forests, 144, 144f
Temperature
body. See Body temperature
environmental. See also Climate
in aquatic environments, 34–35, 49–52, 49f–52f
atmospheric convection currents and, 119–123
biological effects of, 49–52, 49f–52f
dormancy and, 99–103
phenotypic plasticity and, 95–97, 96f
saturation point and, 119–120, 119f
seasonal variation in, 117–118, 119f
Sun’s path and angle and, 116–117
unequal heating of Earth and, 116–123
ocean, species richness and, 533–534
Temporal variation, 87, 87f
spatial variation and, 88–89, 88f
Tent caterpillar (Malacosoma disstria), 355, 355f
Termites
eusociality of, 240–243, 242f
mutualism in, 395
Terrestrial biomes, 138–148
boreal forest, 142–143, 143f
classification of, 139, 139f
climate diagrams for, 140–141, 140f
global distribution of, 139–140, 140f
subtropical desert, 147f, 148
temperate grassland/cold desert, 145–146, 146f
temperate rainforest, 143–144, 143f
temperate seasonal forest, 144, 144f
tropical rainforest, 146–147, 147f
tropical seasonal forest/savanna, 147, 147f
tundra, 142
woodland/shrubland, 145, 145f
Terrestrial environments
adaptations to, 57–83
by animals, 57–58, 71–80
by plants, 59–71
productivity in, 474–746, 476f, 477f. See also Productivity
succession in, 447–450. See also Succession
Territory, 235
I-14
Territory defense, 235–236
Tertiary consumers, 430
Thermal inertia, 77
body size and, 77
Thermal optimum, 51–52
Thermal pollution, 50
coral bleaching and, 53
Thermocline, 151
Thermodynamics, first law of, 8
Thermohaline circulation, 126–127, 127f
Thermophilic bacteria, 49–50, 50f
Thermoregulation, 71–72, 72f, 77–78
Thoreau, Henry David, 201–202
Thylakoids, 65
Ticks
Lyme disease and, 362–364
oxpecker mutualism and, 399, 399f
Tilman, David, 378
Tobacco (Nicotiana sylvestris), 338, 338f
Tobacco mosaic virus, 347, 347f
Tolerance, 456
as herbivore defense, 338
in succession, 456–459
Top predators, 320, 561
Top-down control, 434–435, 434f
Torpor, 101–103
Toxoplasma gondii, 358
Trade winds, 123
Trait-mediated indirect effects, 433–434, 433f
Transient climax community, 460
Transpiration, 62–64, 63f
Treatment, experimental, 22
Tree(s). See also Forest(s)
in boreal forests, 142–143, 143f
in climax communities, 445, 448, 448f, 459–462
conifer, declines in, 546, 547f
distribution after glacial retreat, 536–537, 537f
fungal infections of, 350, 350f
leaf decomposition and, 504–507, 504f–506f
in temperate rainforests, 143–144, 143f
in tropical rainforests, 146–147, 147f
understory, 146
Treefrogs, 85–86
embryonic, predator effects on, 200, 200f
Treehoppers, evolution of, 180–181, 181f
Tremblay’s salamander (Ambystoma tremblayi), 180, 180f
Trophic cascades, 431–432
Trophic levels, 430
Trophic pyramids, 479–480, 480f, 481f
Tropical climates, 128, 129f
Tropical rainforests, 146–147, 147f
Tropical seasonal forests, 147–148, 147f
Tropical seasonal forest/savanna biome, 147–148, 147f
Tropics, species richness in, 530–531
T-tests, 360, 406
Tuberculosis, drug-resistant, 181–182
Tubeworms, 2
Tundra, 142
Turkeys, mutualism in, 409–410
Turtle excluders, 292
Type I functional response, 329, 329f
Type II functional response, 329–330, 329f
Type III functional response, 330, 330f
Ultimate hypotheses, 21
Ultraviolet radiation, 64–65
greenhouse effect and, 114–116, 115f
photosynthesis and, 64–66
Understory, 146
Upwelling, 125, 125f
Urea
in nitrogen balance, 74
in osmoregulation, 42, 42f
Uric acid, in nitrogen balance, 74
Vaccination, 357
Vancouver, George, 443
Variables, 74
Variance
calculation of, 24–25
sample, 25
Variance of the mean, 24–25
Variation. See Environmental variation; Genetic variation
Vectors, parasite, 354f, 355
Vegetative reproduction, 188–189, 208–209
Verhulst, Pierre Francis, 283
Vernal pools, 460
Vertical mixing, 509
Vertical transmission, of parasites, 354, 354f
Viscosity, of water, 36, 36f, 37f
Visible light, 65, 115
Volcanic eruptions, succession after, 445, 446f
Vomit flower (Morinda citrifolia), 337, 338f
Wallace, Alfred, 535
Warning coloration, 333–334, 334f, 335f
Wasps
eusociality of, 240–243
red scale insect and, 320, 321f
Water. See also Aquatic biomes; Aquatic environments
availability of, phenotypic plasticity and, 97–98, 97f
boundary layer in, 46, 47f
cohesion of, 62
density of, 35–36, 35f, 36f
diffusion in, 45–46
evaporation of, 76
freezing of, 34–35, 50–51
gas uptake from, 45–49, 46f–49f
in hydrologic cycle, 493–494, 493f
mineral solubility in, 37–40, 37f–39f
molecular structure of, 37, 37f
pH of, 38–40, 39f
phase changes in, 34–35
in plants
transpiration and, 62–64, 63f
uptake of, 59–62
in soil, 58–62, 59f
solutes in, 40–41, 41f
as solvent, 37–38, 37f, 38f
stratification of
in lakes and oceans, 509
in ponds and lakes, 152
thermal properties of, 34–35, 49–52, 49f–52f
viscosity of, 36, 36f, 37f
Water balance
nitrogen balance and, 74
phenotypic plasticity and, 98, 98f
salt balance and, 72–73, 98, 98f
Water fleas
population cycling in, 303–304, 304f
structural defenses of, 332–333
Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), 168–169, 169f
Water pollution
acid deposition and, 40
from fertilizer runoff, 12, 491–492, 501, 501f
thermal, 50
coral bleaching and, 53
Water potential, 58–59
Water temperature, in oceans, species richness and, 533–534
Water vapor, saturation point of, 119–120, 119f
Watersheds, 502–504, 503f
Weather, 87
Weathering, 130–132, 502–504, 502f, 503f
laterization in, 132, 132f
podsolization in, 131–132, 131f
rate of, 502–504, 503f
West Indian hummingbird (Eulampis jugularis), 101,101f
West Nile virus, 347–348, 348f
Wetlands
allochthonous inputs to, 149, 508–509, 508f
fragmentation of, 308, 308f
freshwater, 152–153, 153f
loss of, 551–552
as transient climax communities, 460–461
Whales
evolution of, 33–34
net primary productivity consumption by, 487–488
White-footed mouse, Lyme disease and, 524
White-nose bat fungus (Geomyces destructans), 352, 352f
Whittaker, Robert, 419, 419f
Wildlife reserves, design of, 529–530, 530f, 537–538, 538f. See also Habitat corridors
Wilson, E. O., 519–520, 526, 527, 528
Wilting point, 59–60, 59f
Wind direction, 122
Coriolis effect and, 122–123, 123f, 124f
Winemaking, 137–138, 157
Wolbachia, reproduction in, 227–228
Wolves
population fluctuations among, 295–296, 299, 299f
reintroduction of, 563–564
Woodlands/shrublands biome, 145, 145f
X chromosome, 216–217
Y chromosome, 216–217
Yellow dungfly (Scatophaga stercoraria), 358, 358f, 359f
Yellowstone National Park
habitat preservation in, 560–561, 560f
wolf reintroduction in, 563–564
Yucca, life span of, 196, 196f
Yucca moth, 400–401, 400f, 401f, 403
Z chromosome, 216–217
Zero growth isocline, 326
for predator-prey cycles, 326–327, 327f
Zero population growth isocline, 376
Zombie-ant fungus (Ophiocordyceps unilateralis), 343–344
Zonation, community, 414–416, 415f, 416f
Zooplankton, 483
DDT accumulation in, 556, 556f
pesticide effects on, 438–439, 439f
phytoplankton and, 479
Zooxanthellae, mutualism with coral, 393, 393f