cap-and-trade

Regulations that set an upper limit for pollution emissions, issue permits to producers for a portion of that amount, and allow producers that release less than their allotment to sell permits to those who exceeded their allotment. (Chapter 20, 24)

carbon capture and sequestration (CCS)

Removing carbon from fuel combustion emissions or other sources and storing it to prevent its release into the atmosphere. (Chapter 18)

carbon cycle

Movement of carbon through biotic and abiotic parts of an ecosystem. Carbon cycles via photosynthesis and cellular respiration as well as in and out of other reservoirs, such as oceans, soil, rock, and atmosphere. It is also released by human actions such as the burning of fossil fuels. (Chapter 8)

carbon footprint

The amount of carbon released to the atmosphere by a person, company, nation, or activity. (Chapter 17)

carbon taxes

Governmental fees imposed on activities (such as fossil fuel use) that release CO₂ into the atmosphere. (Chapter 21)

carrying capacity (K)

The population size that an area can support for the long term; depends on resource availability and the rate of per capita resource use by the population. (Chapters 1, 4, 9)

cash crops

Food and fiber crops grown to sell for profit, rather than for use by local families or communities. (Chapter 16)

cause-and-effect relationship

An association between two variables that identifies one (the effect) occurring as a result of or in response to the other (the cause). (Chapter 2)

cellular respiration

The process in which all organisms break down sugar to release its energy, using oxygen and giving off CO₂ as a waste product. (Chapter 8)

citizen suit provision

A provision that allows a private citizen to sue, in federal court, a perceived violator of certain U.S. environmental laws, such as the Clean Air Act, in order to force compliance. (Chapter 24)

Clean Air Act (CAA)

First passed in 1963 and amended most recently in 1990, this U.S. law authorizes the EPA to set standards for dangerous air pollutants and enforce those standards. (Chapter 20)

Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)

A UN program that allows a country with a greenhouse gas reduction commitment to implement emission-reduction projects in developing countries. (Chapter 24)

Clean Water Act (CWA)

U.S. federal legislation that regulates the release of point source pollution into surface waters and sets water quality standards for those waters. It also supports best management practices to reduce nonpoint source pollution. (Chapter 15)

climate

Long-term patterns or trends of meteorological conditions. (Chapter 21)

climate change

Alteration in the long-term patterns and statistical averages of meteorological events. (Chapter 21)

climax species

Species that move into an area at later stages of ecological succession. (Chapter 10)

closed-loop system

A production system in which the product is returned to the resource stream when consumers are finished with it or is disposed of in such a way that nature can decompose it. (Chapter 6)

clumped distribution

A distribution in which individuals of a population are found in groups or patches within the habitat. (Chapter 9)

coal

Fossil fuel formed when plant material is buried in oxygen-poor conditions and subjected to high heat and pressure over a long time. (Chapter 18)

coevolution

A special type of natural selection in which two species each provide the selective pressure that determines which traits are favored by natural selection in the other. (Chapter 11)

coliform bacteria

Bacteria often found in the intestinal tract of animals; monitored to look for fecal contamination of water. (Chapter 14)

command-and-control regulation

Regulations that set an upper allowable limit of pollution release which is enforced with fines and/or incarceration. (Chapter 20, 24)

commensalism

A symbiotic relationship between individuals of two species in which one benefits from the presence of the other, but the other is unaffected. (Chapter 10)

community

All the populations (plants, animals, and other species) living and interacting in an area. (Chapter 8)

community ecology

The study of all the populations (plants, animals, and other species) living and interacting in an area. (Chapter 10)

competition

Species interaction in which individuals are vying for limited resources. (Chapter 10)

composting

Allowing waste to biologically decompose in the presence of oxygen and water, producing a soil-like mulch. (Chapter 7)

concentrated animal feeding operation (CAFO)

A method in which large numbers of meat or dairy animals are reared at high densities in confined spaces and fed a calorie rich diet to maximize growth.

condensation

The conversion of water from a gaseous state (water vapor) to a liquid state. (Chapter 14)

conservation

Efforts that reduce waste and increase efficient use of resources. (Chapter 23)

conservation biology

The science concerned with preserving biodiversity. (Chapter 13)

conservation genetics

The scientific field that relies on species’ genetics to inform conservation efforts. (Chapter 13)

consumer

An organism that obtains energy and nutrients by feeding on another organism. (Chapter 8, 10)

contour farming

Farming on hilly land in rows that are planted along the slope, following the lay of the land, rather than oriented downhill. (Chapter 17)

control group

The group in an experimental study that the test group’s results are compared to; ideally, the control group will differ from the test group in only one way. (Chapter 2)

control rods

Rods that absorb neutrons and slow the chain reaction in a fission nuclear reactor. (Chapter 22)

conventional oil reserves

Light- or medium-density crude oil deposits; extracted by pumping. (Chapter 19)

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

An international treaty that promotes sustainable use of ecosystems and biodiversity. (Chapter 13)

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)

An international treaty that regulates the global trade of selected species. (Chapter 13)

core species

Species that prefer core areas of a habitat—areas deep within the habitat, away from the edge. (Chapter 10)

corporate average fuel efficiency (CAFE) standards

A target of the minimum fuel efficiency (MPG) that manufacturers must meet; evaluated as a weighted average of all the cars and light trucks each manufacturer produces. (Chapter 24)

correlation

Two things occurring together but not necessarily having a cause-and-effect relationship. (Chapter 2)

cover crop

A crop planted in the off-season to help prevent soil erosion and to return nutrients to the soil. (Chapter 17)

cradle-to-cradle

Management of a resource that considers the impact of its use at every stage, from raw material extraction to final disposal or recycling. (Chapter 6)

critical thinking

Skills that enable individuals to logically assess information, reflect on that information, and reach their own conclusions. (Chapter 3)

crop rotation

Planting different crops on a given plot of land every few years to maintain soil fertility and reduce pest outbreaks. (Chapter 17)

crude birth rate

The number of offspring born per 1,000 individuals per year. (Chapter 4)

crude death rate

The number of deaths per 1,000 individuals per year. (Chapter 4)

crude oil

A mix of hydrocarbons that exists as a liquid underground; can be refined to produce fuels or other products. (Chapter 19)

cultural eutrophication

Nutrient enrichment of an aquatic ecosystem that stimulates excess plant growth and disrupts normal energy uptake and matter cycles. (Chapter 15, 17)