SI-1

AA. See Alcoholics Anonymous Abilities

attraction and, 523

intelligence as hierarchy of, 401–403, 402t, 403f

middle-level, 403–407

primary, 402, 402t

Absentmindedness, 250–251, 259–260

Absolute threshold, 132, 132f, 133t

Absolutism, 29

Abstract concepts, in formal operational stage, 437

Abstract thought, frontal lobe and, 102

Academic performance, procrastination and, 4

ACC. See Anterior cingulate cortex

Acceptance, in rational coping, 562

Accommodation, in cognitive development, 434

Accommodation, visual, 138, 139f

Accuracy motive for social influence, 526, 533–537

Acetylcholine, 88

drug effects on functioning of, 204

Achievement, need for, 344

ACTH. See Adrenocorticotropic hormone

Action potential, 85f, 86–87, 87f

Activation-synthesis model, of dreams, 201–202

Actor-observer effect, 545

Adaptation(s)

evolutionary, 26

sensory, 135–136

Adaptiveness, of psychological processes, 3

Adderall (mixed amphetamine salts), 420

Addiction

DRD2 gene and, 591–592

to drugs, 205–206

A-delta fibers, 164

ADHD. See Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

Adolescence, 451–459

birth rates in, 457

brain in, 452, 453f

culture and, 454

definition of, 451

mental disorders of, 614–617

parent-child relationships during, 458–459

peer relationships during, 454, 454f, 459

protraction of, 453–455, 454f

psychosocial development during, 458, 458t

puberty and, 452

sexuality during, 455–457, 455f–457f

Adrenocorticotropic hormone, 99

Adulthood, 460–466. See also Aging

changing goals in, 463f, 463–464, 464f

changing roles in, 465f, 465–466, 466f

definition of, 460

segregation of the old and, 467

sleep need in, 196

Advertisements, 533–534

Advice, parental, in infancy, 442, 442f

Aerobic exercise, for stress management, 565

Affect labeling, 320

African Americans

intelligence of, 417–420

in psychology, 31–32

stereotyping and, 539, 541, 541f, 542

Tuskegee experiment and, 70

Afterimages, color, 142, 142f

Age. See also Adolescence; Adulthood; Aging; Childhood; Infancy

attractiveness and, 522

mental, 398

sleep needs and, 196

Aggression, 508–512, 509f

culture and, 511f, 511–512

definition of, 508

gender and, 509–510, 510f

media violence and, 64

Aging. See also Adulthood

of brain, 462, 462f

stress effects on, 555–557

Agonists, 89, 90f

Agoraphobia, 596

Akrasia, 578

Al-Anon, 644

Alarm phase of general adaptation syndrome, 555

Alcohol myopia, 208–209

Alcohol use/abuse, 205, 207–209

alcohol myopia and, 208–209

driving and, 208–209, 381

expectancy theory of effects of, 208–209

neurotransmitter balance in brain and, 89

social norming and and binge drinking and, 531

teratogenic effects of, 417, 429–430

Alcoholics Anonymous, 644, 645

Algorithms, 375

Alpha waves, 194, 194f

Alprazolam (Xanax), 209, 649

Altered states of consciousness. See also Dream(s); Hypnosis; Sleep; Substance abuse

definition of, 193

pursuit of, 204–205

Altruism, 516–517

in animals, 516–517

reciprocal, 517

Alzheimer’s disease

crystallized intelligence and, 405

treatment of mental disorders in, 660t

Ambien (zolpidem), 649

Ambitions, attraction and, 523

Ambivalent attachment style, 444–446

American Journal of Psychology, 12

American Psychological Association, 31–32

on effectiveness of psychotherapy, 660

Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct of, 71, 72, 74, 661

founding of, 12, 31

women and minorities in, 31–32

American Psychological Science, 31

American Psychological Society, 31

American Sign Language

in animals, 365

babbling and, 356

brain areas and learning of, 25

Ames room, 152–153, 153f

Amitriptyline (Elavil), 649

Amnesia

anterograde, 232

childhood. See Childhood amnesia

implicit learning and, 303

posthypnotic, 214–215

retrograde, 232

Amphetamines, 205

mixed (Adderall), 420

neurotransmitters and, 90, 91

use/abuse of, 209

Amplitude

of light waves, 137, 137f

of sound waves, 157, 158t

Amputation, phantom limb syndrome and, 104

Amusement, 324

Amygdala, 7, 98f, 99–100, 122

classical conditioning and, 274, 275

dreaming and, 202f, 202–203

emotion and, 99, 122, 319f, 319–320, 320f

memory and, 99, 234, 259, 259f

in social phobia, 654, 654f

Anal stage, 487

Analgesia, hypnotic, 215, 215f

Analogical problem solving, 383f, 383–384

Analytic intelligence, 405–406

Analytic style of information processing, 30

Anandamide, 211

Androgens. See Testosterone

Androgyny, 481

Anesthesia, for surgery, 177

Anger, 323f, 324. See also Aggression

physiological arousal and, 317

SI-2

Animal(s). See also specific animals

altruism in, 516–517

anthropomorphization and, 482–483

conditioning in. See Classical conditioning; Operant conditioning

emotional expression in, 323

language development in, 365–366

observational learning in, 297–299, 298f

personality in, 482–483

as research subjects, 72–73

self-recognition in, 185

sexual behavior in, 339–340

sign language in, 365

social behavior in, 508

social development in, 442–443

tool use by, learning of, 297–299, 298f

The Animal Mind (Washburn), 16

Animals in Translation (Grandin), 615

Anonymity, avoiding demand characteristics with, 46

Anorexia nervosa, 334–335

Anorexigenic signals, 333

ANS. See Autonomic nervous system

Antagonists (drugs), 89, 90f

Anterior capsulotomy, 656

Anterior cingulate cortex

pain and, 570, 570f

placebo effect and, 571

Stroop effect and, 216

Anterograde amnesia, 232

Anthropomorphizing, 482–483

Antianxiety drugs, 209, 649

benzodiazepines, 209, 597, 649

for generalized anxiety disorder, 597

Antidepressant drugs, 649–651

for depression, 602–603, 658, 658f

for generalized anxiety disorder, 597

growing use of, 646, 646f

monoamine oxidase inhibitors, 649, 650f

personality and, 480

placebos vs., 658, 658f

selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, 650, 650f

tricyclic, 649–650, 650f

Antipsychotic drugs, 646, 648

atypical, 648

conventional (typical), 646, 648

side effects of, 646, 648

Antisocial personality disorder, 619t, 619–620

Anvil (of ear), 159, 159f

Anxiety, in psychodynamic approach, 485

Anxiety disorders, 593–598

definition of, 593

drug therapy for, 209, 597, 649

generalized, 596–597

panic disorder, 595–596

phobic, 594–595

APA. See American Psychological Association

APD. See Antisocial personality disorder

Apes. See Chimpanzees; Orangutans

Aphasia, 362

Aplysia

habituation in, 300

memory studies on, 235

Apparent motion, 154

Appearance, attraction and, 520–523, 521f

Appetite. See also Hunger

leptin and, 334

sickness response and, 569

Appraisal, 319

Approach motivation, 345–346, 346t

Approval motive for social influence, 526, 528–533

APS. See American Psychological Science; American Psychological Society

Aptitudes. See also Intelligence

measurement of, 397–398

Area A1, 160, 160f

Area VI, 143

Arousal

physiological, emotion and, 317f, 317–318

tegmentum and, 97

Artificial grammar, implicit learning and, 301f, 301–302

Asch’s conformity experiment, 529–530, 530f

ASD. See Autism Spectrum Disorder

Asian Americans, intelligence of, 418–419

ASL. See American Sign Language

Assimilation, in cognitive development, 433–434

Association areas, 102–103

Asylum movement, 647

Atherosclerosis, stress and, 558

Ativan (lorazepam), 649

Attachment

becoming attached and, 443–444, 444f

definition of, 444

memory and, 444, 444f

significance of attachment styles and, 446

sources of attachment styles and, 445f, 445–446

temperament and, 445

Attention

divided, 251

inattentional blindness and, 155–156

joint, 441, 441f

lapse in, 250–251

selective, 135

testing and, 306–307

vision and, 145–147

visual perception and, 154–156, 155f

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, 586, 616

Attitudes. See also Belief(s)

attraction and, 523

definition of, 533

Attraction, 518–524

physical factors and, 520–523, 521f

psychological factors and, 523–524

sexual behavior and, 341

situational factors and, 518–520

Attractiveness, culture and, 521–522

Attribution(s), 543–545, 544f

Atypical antipsychotics, 648

Audition. See Hearing; Hearing loss

Auditory cortex, primary, 102, 103, 160, 160f

Auditory nerve, temporal code and, 160

Auditory processing, musical training and, 162

Auditory transduction, 159f, 159–160

Authoritarianism, 477

Autism, 439

Autism Spectrum Disorder, 614–615

Autobiographical memory, 495

Automobile driving. See Driving

Autonomic nervous system, 92f, 93–94

classical conditioning and, 275

Autonomy vs. shame and doubt stage, 458t

Autoreceptors, 88

Availability bias, 375, 375f

Aversions, learned, 276

Avoidance motivation, 345–347, 346t

Avoidant attachment style, 444–446

Avoidant personality disorder, 619t

Axons, 81, 81f

myelin sheath around. See Myelin sheath

of squid, study of, 84

terminal buttons of, 87

Babbling

in deaf infants, 360

language development and, 356

Babies. See Infancy

Baboons

aggression in, 512

altruism in, 516–517

Baconian Method. See Scientific method

Bacteria, obesity and, 336

Balance, sense of, 166

Balanced placebo design, 208

Barbiturates, 204, 205, 209

BAS. See Behavioral activation system

Basal ganglia, 98f, 100

concepts and categories and, 372

Basilar membrane, 159, 159f

place code and, 160

Beauty, culture and, 521–522

Bedlam, 647

Behavior, definition of, 2

The Behavior of Organisms; An Experimental Analysis (Skinner), 19

Behavior therapy, 637–639

eliminating unwanted behaviors using, 638

promoting desired behaviors using, 638

reducing unwanted behaviors using, 638t, 638–639

Behavioral activation system, 483

Behavioral inhibition system, 483

Behavioral neuroscience, 24–25. See also Neuroimaging

definition of, 24

Behaviorism, 16, 18–20

conditioning and. See Classical conditioning; Operant conditioning

definition of, 16

development of, 18–19

emergence of, 16, 18

language development and, 359

replacement by cognitive psychology, 20

Belief(s). See also Attitudes

attraction and, 523

cognitive development and, 437–438

definition of, 533

false, in schizophrenia, 608

irrational, cognitive therapy for, 639t, 639–641

observations and, 67–68

reasoning and. See Reasoning

Belief bias, 390

Bell curve, 48, 48f

of intelligence, 416, 416f

Belmont Report, 71

Bem Sex Role Inventory, 481

Benzodiazepines, 209, 649

for generalized anxiety disorder, 597

Beta blockers, neurotransmitters and, 91

Beta waves, 194, 194f

Beyond Freedom and Dignity (Skinner), 19

Bias

availability, 375, 375f

belief, 390

change, 257

cognitive bias modification and, 642

consistency, 257

SI-3

correspondence, 544–545

egocentric, 257

as memory failure, 256–257, 260

observer, 46–47

optimism, culture and, 378

self-serving, 500–501

Big Five dimensions of personality, 478t, 478–480

Bilateral asymmetry, aging and, 462, 462f

Bilingualism, brain and, 363, 363f, 365

Binding problem, 146

Binge drinking, social norming and, 531

Binocular depth cues, 152, 152f

Binocular disparity, 152, 152f

Biofeedback, 564–565

Biological preparedness, 276

Biological treatments

deep brain stimulation, 656

drug therapy. See Drug therapy

electroconvulsive therapy, 654–655

phototherapy, 655

surgical, 655–656

transcranial magnetic stimulation, 655

trephining as, 646

Biopsychosocial perspective, 587, 589

Bipolar cells, 83, 83f, 139f, 140

Bipolar disorder, 604–607, 651

Birds

central nervous system of, 107

learning to sing in, 360

self-recognition in, 185

Birth order, intelligence and, 411

Birth rates, adolescent, 457

BIS. See Behavioral inhibition system

Bisexuals. See Sexual orientation

Blacks. See African Americans

Blind spot, 138f, 140–141, 141f

Blindness

change, 154–156, 155f

color, 142

inattentional, 155–156

Blocking, 252

BMI. See Body mass index

Body mass index, 335, 336t

Body position sense, 166

Body senses, 163–166. See also Pain; Touch

Body shape, attractiveness and, 521–522

Body surface, neural representation of, 163–164

Body temperature, hypothalamus and, 98

Body weight. See also Obesity

eating wisely and, 576, 577, 579

loss of, 577

Bonding. See Attachment

Bonobos, language development in, 365–366

Boot-camp interventions, 661, 661t

Borderline personality disorder, 619t

Botox injections, 326

Bottom-up control, 165

Bottom-up processing, taste sense and, 169

Boys. See Gender; Males

Brain, 95–105

during adolescence, 452, 453f

aging of, 462, 462f

amygdala of. See Amygdala

anterior cingulate cortex of. See Anterior cingulate cortex

attention and, 251

basal ganglia of, 98f, 100, 372

bilingualism and, 363, 363f, 365

Broca’s area of, 7, 115, 304, 362, 362f

cerebellum of, 96, 97f, 274

cerebral cortex of. See Cerebral entries

cerebral hemispheres of. See Cerebral hemispheres

chronic traumatic encephalopathy and, 79–80

cognitive neuroscience and, 24–25, 25f

collaboration with spinal cord, 94–95, 95f

compensatory response to drugs, 270

concepts and categories and, 371–373, 373f

consciousness and. See Consciousness; Mind

corpus callosum of, 101, 101f, 115–117, 116f, 117f

damage to. See Brain damage

decision making and, 380–381, 381f

deep brain stimulation of, 656

depression and, 603, 603f

dreaming and, 202f, 202–203

electrical activity of, 118f, 118–119

embryonic, 106, 106f

emotion and, 316–317, 317f, 318, 319f, 319–320, 320f, 331

exercise and, 105

forebrain of. See Forebrain

frontal lobe of. See Frontal lobe

fusiform gyrus of, 122

hindbrain of, 96, 96f, 97f, 106, 107

hippocampus of. See Hippocampus

hunger and, 334

hypothalamus of. See Hypothalamus

imaging of. See Neuroimaging

implicit vs. explicit learning and, 303–304

insight and, 386

language areas of, 7, 24–25, 115, 304, 362, 362f

language development and, 362–366

lateral geniculate nucleus of, 142–143

limbic system of. See Amygdala; Hippocampus; Hypothalamus; Limbic system

long-term memory and, 231f, 231–232

medial forebrain bundle of, 291, 291f

medication and, 563

medulla of, 96, 97f

memory and, 245–246, 246f, 251, 254, 254f, 259, 259f

midbrain of, 96f, 96–97, 97f, 106, 107

mind and. See Consciousness; Mind

motor cortex of. See Motor cortex

musical training and, 162

myths about, 124

nucleus accumbens of, 291, 291f

observational learning and, 299–300

occipital cortex of, 144, 144f

occipital lobe of, 100f, 101

ontogeny of, 106

operant conditioning and, 291f, 291–292

pain and, 165, 570, 570f, 571

parietal cortex of, 303

parietal lobe of, 100f, 101, 144, 146–147

periaqueductal gray of, 165

personality and, 115, 115f, 483–484

phylogeny of, 106–107

placebo effect and, 571

plasticity of, 103–105

pleasure centers of, 291f, 291–292

pons of, 96, 97f

posttraumatic stress disorder and, 600, 600f

prefrontal cortex of. See Prefrontal cortex

prenatal development of, 106f, 106–107

primary auditory cortex of, 102, 103, 160, 160f

priming and, 244

reasoning and, 391, 391f

reticular formation of, 96, 97f

retrieval and, 240

in schizophrenia, 610–611, 611f, 612f, 648

self-concept and, 496f, 496–497

sickness response and, 569

smell sense and, 167f, 167–168

in social phobia, 654, 654f

socioeconomic status and, 413–414

somatosensory cortex of, 101–102, 103, 570, 570f

Stroop effect and, 216

subcortical structures of, 97–100, 98f

substantia nigra of, 100

surgery to, 655–656

tectum of, 96–97, 97f

tegmentum of, 97, 97f

temporal lobe of, 100f, 102, 115

thalamus of, 98, 98f

types of judgments and, 225, 225f

ventricles of, in schizophrenia, 611, 611f

vision and, 142–145, 143f

visual cortex of. See Visual cortex

Wernicke’s area of, 362, 362f

Brain damage

cerebral hemispheres and, 115–117, 116f, 117f

chronic traumatic encephalopathy and, 79–80

emotion and, 115

studies of, 114–117

Brain death, definition of, 123

Brain networks, 121

Brave New World (Huxley), 204

Broca’s aphasia, 362

Broca’s area, 7, 115, 362, 362f

implicit learning and, 304

Brown v. Board of Education, 32

Bulimia nervosa, 334

Bullfrog, brain of, 107–108

Burnout, 559–560

Buspirone (Buspar), 649

for generalized anxiety disorder, 597

Bystander intervention, 515, 515f

C fibers, 164

Caffeine, 205, 209

Cancer treatment, food aversions and, 276

Cannabis, 211–213

Cannon-Bard theory, 316–317, 317f, 318

Capgras syndrome, 330, 330f

Car driving. See Driving

Cardiovascular disease, stress and, 557–558, 558f

Careers in psychology, 32–34

Caregivers. See also Parent(s)

infants’ ways of keeping close, 443

primary, attachment and, 443–446

responsiveness of, determinants of, 445f, 445–446

Case method, 64

Catatonic behavior, 609

Catecholamines, stress and, 554

Categories

brain and, 371–373, 373f

definition of, 369

exemplar theory of, 371, 371f

family resemblance theory of, 370, 370f

prototype theory of, 370, 370f, 371f

psychological theories of, 369–371

Categorization

civil rights movement and, 28

memory and, 225–226, 226f

warping of perception by, 539–540, 540f

SI-4

Category-specific deficits, 372–373, 373f

Causation, 54–62

CBM. See Cognitive bias modification

CBT. See Cognitive behavioral therapy

Celexa (Citalopram), 650, 654, 654f

Cell body, of neurons, 81, 81f

Cell phones, driving while using, 135, 251

The Center Cannot Hold: My Journey Through Madness (Saks), 613

Central nervous system, 92, 92f. See also Brain; Spinal cord

components of, 94f, 94–95, 95f

depressants and, 207–209

evolutionary development of, 107f, 107–108

prenatal development of, 106f, 106–107

Central nucleus, classical conditioning and, 274

Central tendency, statistics describing, 49, 49f

Centration, 436

Cephalocaudal rule, 432

Cerebellum, 96, 97f

classical conditioning and, 274

Cerebral cortex, 97, 98f, 100f, 100–103

definition of, 97

hemispheres of. See Cerebral hemispheres

organization across hemispheres, 100–101, 101f

organization within hemispheres, 101–102, 102f

organization within specific lobes, 102–103

in social phobia, 654, 654f

Cerebral hemispheres, 97, 100–102, 101f

organization across, 100–101, 101f

organization within, 101–102, 102f

right, language development and, 363

specialization of, 115–117, 116f, 117f

Certainty effect, 379

CFI. See Cultural Formulation Interview

Challenges

hardiness and, 575

treats vs., 559

Change bias, 257

Change blindness, 154–156, 155f

Charles Bonnet syndrome, 173

Chemical senses. See Smell sense; Taste sense

Chemical signaling. See Neurotransmitters

Childhood

aversion to watching others’ suffering in, 451

birth order and intelligence and, 411

cognitive development in. See Cognitive development

Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development in, 458, 458t

gifted children and, 416–417

mental disorders in, 614–617

moral development in. See Moral development

parental happiness with parenthood and, 455f, 465–466

parental intelligence and, 408, 409t

perceptual and motor development in, 431–432, 432f

sleep need in, 196

Childhood abuse, suicide and, 112

Childhood amnesia, culture and, 240

Chimeric faces, 117, 117f

Chimpanzees

language development in, 365–366

self-recognition in, 185

tool use by, observational learning of, 297–299, 298f

Chloride ions, 85

Chlorpromazine, 646

Chromosomes, 108, 109f

sex, 108, 427

telomerase and, 556–557

of zygote, 427

Chronic stressors, 551–553

Chronic traumatic encephalopathy, 79–80

Chunking, 229

Cigarette smoking. See Nicotine; Smoking

Cilia, 107

Cingulate cortex. See Anterior cingulate cortex

Cingulotomy, 656

Circadian rhythm, 193

CISD. See Critical-incident stress debriefing

Citalopram (Celexa), 650, 654, 654f

Civil rights movement, social psychology and, 28

Classical conditioning, 267–277

acquisition in, 269, 269f

cognitive elements of, 273f, 273–274

definition of, 267

discrimination in, 271

of emotional responses, 272–273

evolutionary elements of, 275–276

extinction in, 270–271

of fear, 272–273, 274–275

generalization in, 271

neural elements of, 274–275

Pavlov’s experiments on, 267f, 267–269, 268f

second-order, 269–270

spontaneous recovery in, 271

Classroom learning, 304–309. See also Education

control of learning and, 307–309

techniques for, 304–306, 305t

testing and attention and, 306–307

Claustrophobia, 594

Client-centered therapy, 636

Clinical psychologists, 33, 33f

Clinical psychology, development of, 13–15

Cliques, adolescent, 459

Closure, perceptual organization and, 148, 149f

Clozapine (Clozaril), 648

CNS. See Central nervous system

Coca-Cola, 210

Cocaine, 205, 209, 210

neurotransmitters and, 90

Cochlea, 159, 159f

Cochlear implants, 161

Cocktail-party phenomenon, 182–183

Codeine, 210

Coercion, freedom from, 71

Cognition. See also Cognitive development; Thought

bilingualism and, 363

classical conditioning and, 273f, 273–274

depression and, 604

implicit learning and, 301f, 301–302

operant conditioning and, 288–291

social. See Social cognition

Cognitive behavioral therapy, 641–642

combining with drug therapy, 652, 652f

drug therapy compared with, 654, 654f

Cognitive bias modification, 642

Cognitive development, 433–441

culture and, 440–441, 441f

definition of, 433

desires and emotions and, 438

egocentrism and, 437, 438

language development and, 358–359

perceptions and beliefs and, 437–438

Piaget’s stages of, 433t, 433–437, 434f, 435f, 439–440

theory of mind and, 438–439

Cognitive dissonance, 535–537, 536f

Cognitive enhancers, 420–421

Cognitive maps, 289–290, 290f

Cognitive neuroscience, 25

Cognitive psychology

development of, 22–23

origins of, 20–22

Cognitive Psychology (Neisser), 23

Cognitive restructuring, 639–641

Cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia, 609

Cognitive therapy, 639t, 639–641

Cognitive unconscious, 191–192, 192f

Collaborative inhibition, 247

Collaborative memory, 246–247, 248

College Undergraduate Stress Scale, 550, 551t

Color, perception of, 154

Color afterimages, 142, 142f

Color blindness, 142

Color deficiency, 142

Color processing, language and, 367f, 367–368

Color vision, 140–142, 141f, 142f

Color-opponent system, 140

Combustion, phlogiston theory of, 41

Commissures, 101

Commitment, hardiness and, 575

Common fate, perceptual organization and, 149, 149f

Common knowledge effect, 514

Communication. See Language; Language development; Speech

Community mental health centers, 647

Comorbidity, 587

Companionate love, 524–525, 525f

Comparison level, divorce and, 525

Complexity

empirical method and, 42

of sound waves, 158, 158t

Compound remote associates, 386–387

Computer(s). See Technology

Computerized axial tomography scans, of brain, 119, 119f

Concepts

abstract, in formal operational stage, 437

brain and, 371–373, 373f

definition of, 369

exemplar theory of, 371, 371f

family resemblance theory of, 370, 370f

prototype theory of, 370, 370f, 371f

psychological theories of, 369–371

of time, language and, 368

Conceptual priming, 244

Concrete operational stage, 433, 433t, 436–437

Conditioned response, 268, 269, 270, 275

Conditioned stimulus, 268, 269, 270, 275

Conditioning. See Classical conditioning; Operant conditioning

Conditioning chamber, 18, 19

Conduct disorder, 616–617, 620

Conduction, in neurons, 84–87

Conductive hearing loss, 161

Cones (retinal), 138, 139f, 140, 141f, 142

Confidentiality, in research, 72

Confirmation, perceptual, 541

Confirmatory factor analysis, 403, 403f

Conformity, 529–530, 530f

Congenital abnormalities, teratogens causing, 428–430

Conjunction fallacy, 375–376, 376f

SI-5

Conscious motivations, 344–345

Consciousness, 8, 177–217. See also Mind

altered states of. See Altered states of consciousness; Dream(s); Hypnosis; Sleep; Substance abuse

anesthesia for surgery and, 177

basic properties of, 182f, 182–183, 183f

contents of, 186t, 186–189, 187t

daydreaming and, 187–188, 188f

decision making and, 191–192, 192f

definition of, 178

dream, 199–200. See also Dream(s)

drugs and, 204–213

full, 184

hypnosis and. See Hypnosis

intentionality of, 182

levels of, 177, 183–186

mind-body problem and, 180f, 180–181, 181f

minimal, 184

nature of, 181–189

of others, perceiving, 179–180, 180f

phenomenology and, 179

problem of other minds and, 179–180, 180f

regulation of, 212–213

selectivity of, 182–183

self-, 184–186

sleep and. See Sleep

thought suppression and, 188f, 188–189

transience of, 183

unconscious mind and, 189–192

unity of, 182

Consent, informed, 71

Conservation, in cognitive development, 436

Consistency, social influence and, 535–537, 536f

Consistency bias, 257

Consolidation, of memories, 232–234

Content morphemes, 353–354

Context, drug overdoses and, 270

Continuity, perceptual organization and, 148, 149f

Contralateral control, 101

Control

contralateral, 101

hardiness and, 575

locus of, 493

over stressful events, perceived, 553

Control group, 58, 59f

Conventional antipsychotics, 646, 648

Conventional stage of moral development, 448

Conversion therapy, for sexual orientation, 456

Cooperation, 512–515

definition of, 512

groups and favoritism and, 513–515, 515f

risk and trust and, 512f, 512–513

Coping

rational, 561–562

repressive, 561

Cornea, 138f

Coronary heart disease, stress and, 557–558, 558f

Corpus callosum, 101, 101f

crossing of, by seizures, 115–116

severing of, 116f, 116–117, 117f

Correlation, 51t, 51–57

causation and, 54–62

factor analysis and, 401–402

natural, 54–55

patterns of variation and, 52

strength and direction of, 52–54, 53f, 54f

third-variable problem and, 55f, 55–57, 56f

Correlation coefficients, 53

Correspondence bias, 544–545

Cortex, cerebral. See Cerebral entries

Cortisol, stress and, 259, 554

Counseling psychologists, 33

Counselors, 631

Couples therapy, 643

Covariation model of attributions, 543–544, 544f

Cover stories, observation and, 46

CR. See Conditioned response

Crack cocaine, 210

Cramming, 305–306

Creative intelligence, 405–406

Creativity, 384–386

Critical thinking, in research, 66–69

Critical-incident stress debriefing, 661, 661t

Crystallized intelligence, 405

CS. See Conditioned stimulus

CT scans. See Computerized axial tomography scans

CTE. See Chronic traumatic encephalopathy

Cue(s)

depth, 150–152

retrieval, 236–237

Cue exposure therapies, 270

Cultural Formulation Interview, 589

Cultural psychology, 28–30

Culture

adolescence and, 454

aggression and, 511f, 511–512

anorexia nervosa and, 335

beauty and, 521–522

behavior and, 30

change blindness and, 156

childhood amnesia and, 240

cognitive development and, 440–441, 441f

emotional expression and, 323f, 323–324

intelligence and, 417–420

intelligence concept and, 406–407

mental disorders and, 29, 589

moral development and, 449

new, stress of moving to, 566–567

obesity and, 339

optimism bias and, 378

pain intensity and, 165

personality and, 481, 492

reinforcers and, 281

social influence and, 528

tone of voice and, 329

treatment for mental disorders and, 632

CUSS. See College Undergraduate Stress Scale

Cytokines, 569

D.A.R.E. (Drug Abuse and Resistance Education) program, 661, 661t

Darwin’s theory of natural selection, 11

Data-based approach, 403–405, 404f, 405f, 406

Daydreaming, 187–188, 188f

DBS. See Deep brain stimulation

Deafness. See Hearing loss

Death

brain, definition of, 123

suicide and, 112, 621–622, 622t

Debriefing, 72

Deception

in experiments, 71

insincere facial expressions and, 327, 327f

lie detection and, 327–329, 328f

Decision making, 374–382

availability bias and, 375, 375f

brain and, 380–381, 381f

conjunction fallacy and, 375–376, 376f

errors in, reasons for, 378–380

framing effects and, 377

joint decisions and, 516

judging frequencies and probabilities and, 374–375

rational choice theory of, 374

representativeness heuristic and, 376–377

Declaration of Helsinki, 70

Deep brain stimulation, 656

Deep structure, of language, 354–355

Defense mechanisms, 486, 486t

Definitions, operational, 44

Degree of relatedness, 109

Dehydroepiandrosterone, sexual desire and, 338–339

Deindividuation, 514

Deinstitutionalization movement, 646, 647, 648

Deintensification, emotional expression and, 326

Delayed reinforcement and punishment, 280f, 280–281

Delusions, in schizophrenia, 608

Demand characteristics, 45–46

Demerol, 210

Demyelinating diseases, 82

Dendrites, 81, 81f

receptors of, 87, 88

Dependent personality disorder, 619t

Dependent variable, 58

Depressants, 207–209

Depression

bipolar disorder and, 604–607, 651

brain and, 603, 603f

cognitive model of, 604

culture and, 29

double, 602

financial costs associated with, 628

postpartum, 602

treatment of, 650, 658, 658f, 660t. See also Antidepressant drugs

unipolar, 601–604

Depressive disorders, 601–604. See also Depression

biological factors in, 602–603, 603f

psychological factors in, 604

Depth, illusions of, 152–153, 153f

Depth cues, 150–152

binocular, 152, 152f

monocular, 150–151, 151f

pictorial, 151, 151f

Description, 47–51

graphic representations as, 47–48, 48f

statistics and, 48–51, 49f, 50f

Descriptive statistics, 48–51, 49f, 50f

Desire(s), cognitive development and, 438

Desired behaviors, promoting, 638

Development, 425–467

in adolescence. See Adolescence

in adulthood. See Adulthood

in childhood. See Childhood

cognitive. See Cognitive development

in infancy. See Infancy

moral, 446–451

motor, 431–432, 432f

perceptual, 431

prenatal, 426–430

psychosocial, Erikson’s stages of, 458, 458t

social, 442–446

Developmental psychology, 426

Deviation IQ, 398

Dexedrine, 209

DHEA. See Dehydroepiandrosterone

Diagnoses, definition of, 586

SI-6

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 586–587, 588t, 590, 592

Diathesis-stress model, 589–590

Diazepam. See Valium

Dichotic listening, 182

Dieting, ineffectiveness of, 577

Diffusion chain, 296–297

Diffusion of responsibility, 514–515, 515f

Diffusion tensor imaging, of brain, 120, 120f

Digit memory test, 223, 223f

Discrimination (against people)

definition of, 513

stress and illness related to, 552

Discrimination (process)

in classical conditioning, 271

in operant conditioning, 282–283

Discriminative stimulus, 282

Discursive reasoning, 388–389

Disease, definition of, 586

Disgust, 323f, 324

Disorder, definition of, 586

Disorganized attachment style, 444–446

Disorganized speech, in schizophrenia, 608

Displacement, 486t

Display rules, 326–327

Dispositional attributions, 543–544, 544f

Distributed practice, 305t, 305–306

Distributed representation, 147–148

Divided attention, 251

Divorce, 525

Dizygotic twins. See Fraternal (dizygotic) twins

DNA, 108

epigenetic marks and, 110

DNA methylation, 110–111, 112

Doctor-patient interaction, 573, 573f

Dolphins, self-recognition in, 185

Door-in-the-face technique, 529

The Doors of Perception (Huxley), 204

L-Dopa, 89–90

Dopamine, 88

drug effects on functioning of, 204

Parkinson’s disease and, 89–90, 100, 292

Dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia, 610, 648

Dopamine receptors, DRD2 gene and, 591

Dopaminergic neurons, operant conditioning and, 291–292

Dorsal visual stream, 144, 144f, 145

Double depression, 602

Double-blind experiments, 659

Double-blind observation, 47

Down syndrome, 417

DRD2 gene, 591

Dream(s), 199–203

activation-synthesis model of, 201–202

brain and, 202f, 202–203

dream consciousness and, 199–200

Freudian theory of, 200–201, 202

latent content of, 200–201

manifest content of, 200–201

theories of, 200–202

Dream analysis, 634

Drinking. See Alcohol use/abuse

Drives, 332–333

Driving

cell phone use during, 135, 251

cost of speeding and, 527

drinking and, 208–209, 381

road rage and, 558

Drug(s)

abuse of. See Alcohol use/abuse; Substance abuse

addiction to, 205–206. See also Alcohol use/abuse; Substance abuse

agonist and antagonist, 89, 90f

balance of neurotransmitters in brain and, 89

cognitive enhancers, 420–421

gateway, 212

overdoses of, 270

psychoactive. See Drug therapy; Psychoactive drugs; Substance abuse

tolerance to, 205, 270, 649

Drug therapy, 646, 648–654

antianxiety drugs for, 209, 597, 649

antidepressant drugs for, 480, 597, 602–603, 646, 646f, 649–651, 650f, 658, 658f

antipsychotic drugs for, 646, 648

combining with psychotherapy, 652, 652f

herbal and natural products for, 651–652, 652f

licensing of psychologists to prescribe medications and, 654

mood stabilizers for, 651

overdiagnosis and, 653

psychotherapy vs., 654, 654f

DSM. See Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders

DTI. See Diffusion tensor imaging

Dualism, 6

Ducklings, imprinting in, 443

Duration, facial expressions and, 327

Dynamic unconscious, 190–191, 485

Dysgenic fertility, 414

Dysphasia, genetic, 360

Dysthymia, 601–602, 602

“E.” See Ecstasy

Ear, 158–160, 159f

vestibular system of, 166

EAR (electronically activated recorder), 476

Early experience, persisting effects of, 112

Early memories, 261

Early Start Denver Model, 615

Eating disorders, 334–338, 335f, 336t

Eating wisely, 576, 577

regulation promoting, 579

Ebbinghaus’s studies of memory, 249f, 249–250

Echoic memory, 228

Eclectic psychotherapy, 633

Ecstasy, 205, 209–210

ECT. See Electroconvulsive therapy

Edge assignment, 149

Education. See also Classroom learning

for careers in psychology, 32–33

intelligence and, 414–415

sex, 457, 578

women and minorities and, 31

EEG. See Electroencephalograph

EEG biofeedback, 564–565

Effect, law of, 277f, 277–278, 278f

Effectiveness of treatment of psychological disorders, 656–661

Effexor (Venlafaxine), 650

Ego, 485

Ego integrity vs. despair stage, 458t

Egocentric bias, 257

Egocentrism, cognitive development and, 437, 438

Egotism, implicit, 501–502

Elaborative interrogation, effectiveness as study technique, 305t

Elavil (amitriptyline), 649

Elderly people. See Adulthood; Aging

Electric signaling

action potential and, 85f, 86–87, 87f

resting potential and, 84–85, 85f

Electrical activity, of brain, 118f, 118–119

Electroconvulsive therapy, 654–655

Electroencephalograph, 118, 118f

biofeedback and, 564–565

sleep and, 193–194, 194f, 195

Electromagnetic spectrum, 137, 137f

Electromyography, relaxation therapy and, 564

Electrooculograph, during sleep, 194–195

Elephants, self-recognition in, 185

Embarrassment, 324

Embryonic brain, 106, 106f

Embryonic stage, 427, 427f

EMG. See Electromyography

Emotion(s), 3, 314–329

amygdala and, 99, 122, 319f, 319–320, 320f

appraisal and, 319

assessing, 187, 187t

basic, 323f, 323–324

brain and, 99, 122, 319f, 319–320, 320f, 331

Cannon-Bard theory of, 316–317, 317f, 318

cognitive development and, 438

definition of, 314–316, 315f

dream consciousness and, 199

expressed, 607

James-Lange theory of, 316, 318

limbic system and, 99

motivation and, 330f, 330–331

multidimensional scaling and, 314–316, 315f

physiological responses and, 315–318, 317f, 318f

regulation of, 320–321

sexual behavior and, 341

two-factor theory of, 317f, 317–318

Emotion regulation, 320–321

Emotional expression, 322–329

cause and effect of, 324, 326, 326f

communicative, 323–326

culture and, 323f, 323–324, 329

deceptive, 326–329, 327f, 328f

definition of, 322

facial expressions and. See Facial expressions

suppression of, 320

universality of, 323f, 323–324

Emotional intelligence, 406

Empathy, in childhood, 451

Empirical method, 42–43

Empiricism, 40–43

definition of, 40

observation and, 42–43

scientific method and, 40–42

Encephalopathy, traumatic, chronic, 79–80

Encoding, 222, 223f, 223–227

organizational, 225–226, 226f

semantic, 223–224, 225f

of survival-related information, 226–227, 227f

of visual imagery, 224–225, 225f

Encoding specificity principle, 236–237

Enculturation hypothesis, 298

End of history illusion, 460

Endocrine system. See also Hormones; specific hormones

hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and, 554

Endogenous opioids, 210–211, 571

Endorphins, 89

SI-7

Environment

gene expression and, 110–111, 111f

intelligence and, 411–415, 412f, 413f, 413t, 419–420

nonshared, 410–411

phobias and, 595

prenatal, 428–430

shared, 410–411

Environmental psychology, 552

Enzyme deactivation, 88

EOG. See Electrooculograph

Epidemiology, 589

Epigenetic marks, 110

Epigenetic writers, 110

Epigenetics, 110–113, 111f

Epinephrine, stress and, 554, 567

Episodic memory, 244–247

imagining the future and, 245–246, 246f

Equity, in marriage, 525

Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development, 458, 458t

Erotogenic zones, 487

Errors, in decision making, reasons for, 378–380

ESDM. See Early Start Denver Model

ESP. See Extrasensory perception

Estrogen

odor related to, 170

sexual desire and, 339, 340

Estrus, 340

Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (APA), 71, 72, 74, 661

Ethics. See also Moral development

in research, 70–74

treatment of mental disorders and, 661

Ethnicity. See also African Americans; Asian Americans; Culture; European Americans; Latinos; Minorities

intelligence and, 417–420

Etiology, 587

European Americans

intelligence of, 417–420

stereotyping and, 541, 541f, 542

Evolution

altruism in, 516–517

classical conditioning and, 275

operant conditioning and, 293f, 293–294

self-esteem and, 499–500

Evolutionary psychology, 25–26

Exams, studying for, 305–306

Excitement, physiological arousal and, 317

Excitement phase of human sexual response cycle, 340, 341f

Exemplar theory of concepts, 371, 371f

Exercise

aerobic, for stress management, 565

brain function and, 105

Exhaustion phase of general adaptation syndrome, 555

Existential approach, 489–490

Existential psychologists, 488

Existential therapy, 636–637

Expectancies, outcome, 493, 493t

Expectancy theory, of alcohol effects, 208–209

Expectations

in classical conditioning, 273, 273f

influence on observations, 47

influence on reality, 47

observations and, 67–68

placebo effect and, 657–658, 658f

reward learning in Parkinson’s disease and, 292

Experience-sampling technique, 186t, 186–187

Experiment(s), 57–69

animal subjects in, 72–73

beliefs and, 67–68

critical steps in, 58

critical thinking and, 66–69

definition of, 57

double-blind, 659

ethics and, 70–74

human subjects in, 70–72

manipulation and, 57–58, 59f

random assignment and, 58–61, 60f

sampling and, 64–66

significance and, 61–62

subjects for, 63–66

validity and, 62–63

Experimental group, 58, 59f

Explicit learning

implicit learning vs., 302

neural pathways and, 303f, 303–304

Explicit memory, 242–244, 242f–244f

Exposure, in rational coping, 562

Exposure and response prevention, 639

Exposure therapy, 638t, 638–639

Expressed emotion, 607

The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (Darwin), 323

External forces, 28

External locus of control, 493

External validity, 62–63

Extinction

in classical conditioning, 270–271

in operant conditioning, 283

resistance to, intermittent reinforcement effect and, 286

Extrasensory perception, 61

Extraversion, 478, 483

Extrinsic motivation, 343–344, 344f

Eye, 138, 138f, 139f

Eyeblink, conditioning of, 274

Eysenck’s personality theory, 478

Face(s)

chimeric, 117, 117f

in fetal alcohol syndrome, 430

Facebook, personality judgments and, 479

Facial expressions

ambiguity of, 325

facial feedback hypothesis and, 324, 326, 326f

infant mimicry of, 431

muscle movements and, 322–323, 324, 326

sincerity of, 327, 327f

universality of, 323f, 323–324

Facial feedback hypothesis, 324, 326, 326f

Factor analysis, 401–403

confirmatory, 403, 403f

personality traits and, 477–478

Fallacies

conjunction, 375–376, 376f

sunk-cost, 377

False memories, 256

False recognition, 254

False-belief task, 437–438

Familiar size, as depth cue, 151, 151f

Family resemblance theory of concepts, 370, 370f

Family therapy, 643

Farsightedness, 138, 139f

FAS. See Fetal alcohol syndrome

Fast mapping, 356

Favoritism, 513–515, 515f

Fear, 323f, 324. See also Anxiety entries; Phobic disorders

amygdala and, 99

conditioning of, 272–273, 274–275

observational learning of, 297

physiological arousal and, 317

Feature detectors

single-neuron, 143, 143f

in visual cortex, 118–119

Feature-integration theory, 146

Feeblemindedness, testing immigrants for, 396

Females. See also Gender; Mothers

adolescent, pregnancy and, 457

Fertility, dysgenic, 414

Fetal alcohol syndrome, 417, 429–430

Fetal stage, 428

Fetus, hearing in, 430

FI. See Fixed-interval schedule

Field theory, 28

Fight-or-flight response, 567

to stress, 554f, 554–558, 555f

Figure-ground relationship, 149, 149f

Filler items, observation and, 46

Fish oil, 651–652, 652f

Five-factor personality model, 478t, 478–480

Fixation, 487

Fixed-interval schedule, 284

Fixed-ratio schedule, 285

Flashbulb memories, 258

Flatworms, central nervous system of, 107

Flavor, 167, 172

Fluid intelligence, 405

Fluoxetine. See Prozac

Flynn effect, 412

fMRI. See Functional magnetic resonance imaging

Food aversions, 276

Food intake

appetite and, 334, 569

eating disorders and, 334–338, 335f, 336t

eating wisely and, 576, 577, 579

hunger and, 333–334, 334f

obesity and, 335f, 335–338, 336t, 576

portion size and, 337, 577

Football, chronic traumatic encephalopathy and, 79–80

Foot-in-the-door technique, 535

Forebrain, 96f, 97–103, 98f. See also Cerebral cortex

development of, 107, 107f, 108

formation of, 106

limbic system of, 99–100. See also Amygdala; Hippocampus; Hypothalamus

subcortical structures of, 97–100, 98f

Forgetting. See also Amnesia; Memory failures

dream consciousness and, 199

retrieval-induced, 238, 240

Form agnosia, visual, 144, 144f

Formal operational stage, 433, 433t, 437

Fovea, 138f, 139f, 140

FR. See Fixed-ratio schedule

Framed-line test, 30

Framing effects, 377

Fraternal (dizygotic) twins, 109

depression in, 602

intelligence in, 408, 409t

sexual orientation of, 456

Fraud, in research, 73–74

Free association, in psychoanalysis, 634

Freedom, from coercion, 71

SI-8

Freezing, 274–275

Frequencies, judging, 374–375

Frequency, of sound waves, 157, 158t

Frequency distributions, 48, 48f

positively skewed, 49–50, 50f

Frequency format hypothesis of decision-making errors, 379–380

Freudian slips, 190

Freudian theory. See Psychoanalysis; Psychoanalytic theory; Psychodynamic approach

Friendships, in adolescence, 454, 454f, 459

Frontal lobes, 100f, 102

attention and, 251

Broca’s area in, 115

DRD2 gene and, 591

personality and, 115, 115f, 480

retrieval and, 240

Frustration-aggression hypothesis, 509

Full consciousness, 184

Function morphemes, 354

Functional brain imaging, 2, 120–123, 121f

Functional fixedness, 385f, 385–386, 386f, 388f, 389f, 391f

Functional magnetic resonance imaging, 2, 120–122, 121f

Functionalism, 10–12

Fundamental attribution error, 544

Fusiform gyrus, 122

g (general factor), 403, 403f

GABA. See Gamma-aminobutyric acid

GAD. See Generalized anxiety disorder

Gamblers Anonymous, 644

Gamma-aminobutyric acid, 88

alcohol and, 207

antianxiety medications and, 649

drug effects on functioning of, 204

Ganglion cells, retinal, 139f, 140

GAS. See General adaptation syndrome

Gate-control theory of pain, 165

Gateway drugs, 212

Gaussian distribution, 48, 48f

Gays. See Sexual orientation

Gender. See also Females; Males; Mothers

aggression and, 509–510, 510f

generalized anxiety disorder and, 597

intelligence and, 418

moral development and, 448–449

personality and, 481

selection of sexual partners and, 518, 519

social support and, 566–567

Gene(s), 108–110, 109f. See also Genetic factors; Heritability

environmental influence on expression of, 110–111, 111f

obesity and, 336

General adaptation syndrome, 554–555

General factor (g), 403, 403f

General motivations, 345

Generalization, 64–65

in classical conditioning, 271

in operant conditioning, 282–283

Generalized anxiety disorder, 596–597

Generativity vs. stagnation stage, 458t

Genetic dysphasia, 360

Genetic factors. See also Gene(s); Heritability

intelligence and, 407–411, 415, 419–420

personality and, 480, 480t, 482

twin studies of. See Fraternal (dizygotic) twins; Identical (monozygotic) twins

Genital stage, 488

Genius, insight and, 384f, 384–385, 385f

Geography

aggression and, 511f, 511–512

attraction and, 520

Geons, 150, 150f

Germinal stage, 427

Gestalt perceptual grouping rules, 148–149, 149f

Gestalt psychology, 20–21

Gestalt therapy, 636–637

Ghrelin, 333–334

Gifted people, 416–417

Girls. See Gender

Glial cells, 82

Glutamate, 88

Goals

changing, in adulthood, 463f, 463–464, 464f

personal, in social-cognitive approach, 493, 493t

Grammar

artificial, implicit learning and, 301f, 301–302

definition of, 352

Grammatical rules, emergence of, 357–358

Graphic representations, 47–48, 48f

Grossly disorganized behavior, in schizophrenia, 608–609

Group(s)

cooperation and, 512–515

definition of, 513

favoritism and, 513–515, 515f

support, 644–645

Group factors, 403, 403f

Group polarization, 514

Group therapy, 643–644

Grouping, memory and, 225–226, 226f

Groupthink, 514

Guilt, 324

Gustation. See Taste sense

Gyrus(i), 100, 100f

fusiform, 122

Habituation, 431

definition of, 266

implicit learning and, 300

Hair cells, of ear, 159f, 159–160

Hallucinations

hypnagogic, 198

hypnopompic, 198–199

in schizophrenia, 608

visual, 173

Hallucinogens, 211

Haloperidol (Haldol), 646

Hammer (of ear), 159, 159f

Happiness, 323f, 324

marriage and parenthood and, 455f, 465–466

physiological arousal and, 317

Haptic perception, 163

Hardiness, health and, 575–576

Harlow’s attachment studies, 442–443

Harm, protection from, 71

Harm reduction approach, 213

Head trauma. See Brain damage

Health. See also Illness; Psychology of health; Psychology of illness

stress effects on, 555–557

Healthcare provider-patient interaction, 573, 573f

Hear the World Foundation, 157

Hearing, 157–162

absolute threshold for, 133t

ear and, 158–160, 159f

fetal, 430

localizing sound sources and, 161

loss of. See Hearing loss

pitch perception and, 160, 160f

sound sensation and, 157–158, 158t

stereophonic, 161

temporal lobe and, 102

transduction and, 131t

Hearing loss

cochlear implants for, 161

conductive, 161

language development and, 360, 361–362

language use and, 24–25

sensorineural, 161

sign language for. See Sign language

Heart disease, stress and, 557–558, 558f

Heat (estrus), 340

Hedonic motive for social influence, 526, 527f, 527–528

Hedonic principle, 331

Helping behaviors, observation of, 45

Helplessness theory, 604

Hemispheres, cerebral. See Cerebral hemispheres

Herbal products, for mental disorders, 651–652, 652f

Hereditary Genius (Galton), 407

Heritability, 111, 113. See also Gene(s); Genetic factors

of bipolar disorder, 606

of depression, 602

of intelligence, 409f, 409–411, 410f

of obesity, 336

of schizophrenia, 609–610

Heroin, 205, 210

overdose of, 270

Heuristic persuasion, 534–535, 535f

Heuristics, 375

representativeness, 376–377

Hierarchy of needs, 489

Highlighting, effectiveness as study technique, 305t

Hindbrain, 96, 96f, 97f, 107

formation of, 106

Hippocampus, 7, 98f, 99

implicit vs. explicit learning and, 303

memory and, 99, 231f, 231–232, 245–246, 246f, 251, 254, 254f

posttraumatic stress disorder and, 600, 600f

in social phobia, 654, 654f

Histone modification, 110–111

Histrionic personality disorder, 619t

HIV/AIDS, 576

Holistic style of information processing, 30

Holocaust, social psychology and, 28

Homeostasis, 332–333

Homosexuality. See Sexual orientation

Homunculus, 101

Hormones. See also specific hormones

aggression and, 510, 510f

hunger and, 333–334

odor related to, 170

sexual desire and, 338–339

stress and, 554, 567

Hostility. See Aggression

HPA axis. See Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis

“Huffing,” 209

SI-9

Human brain, 107f, 107–108. See also Brain

Human Connectome Project, 120, 120f, 122

Human papillomavirus vaccine, 457

Human sexual response cycle, 340–341, 341f

Human subjects, ethical treatment of, 70–72

Humanistic psychologists, 488

Humanistic psychology, 15, 488–489, 489f

Humanistic therapy, 636

Humanistic-existential approach, 488–490

Humor, for stress management, 568

Hunger, 333–334, 334f. See also Appetite

hypothalamus and, 98

Hyperopia, 138, 139f

Hypnagogic hallucinations, 198

Hypnagogic state, 193

Hypnic jerks, 193

Hypnopompic hallucinations, 198–199

Hypnopompic state, 193

Hypnosis, 214–217

definition of, 214

effects of, 214–216, 215f, 216f

induction and susceptibility to, 214

Hypnotic analgesia, 215, 215f

Hypnotic drugs, 649

Hypochondriasis, 572

Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, stress and, 554

Hypothalamus, 98f, 98–99, 99

hunger and, 334, 334f

operant conditioning and, 291, 291f

Hypotheses, 41

generation of, 63

Hysteria, 13

Iatrogenic illness, 660–661, 661t

Ice cream consumption, correlation with polio, 56

Iconic memory, 228, 228f

Id, 485

Identical (monozygotic) twins

depression in, 602

intelligence in, 408, 409t

personality of, 480, 482

schizophrenia in, 609–610

sexual orientation of, 456

Identification, 486t

Identity vs. role confusion stage, 458t

Illness. See also Health; Psychology of health

discrimination related to, 552

faking, 572–573

hypochondriasis and, 572

mental. See Mental disorders

patient-practitioner interaction and, 573, 573f

psychology of. See Psychology of illness

psychosomatic, 572

secondary gains of, 572–573

sick role and, 572

sickness response and, 569

stress and. See Psychology of health; Psychology of illness

Illusions, 20

of depth and size, 152–153, 153f

end of history, 460

of explanatory depth, 390

Illusory conjunctions, 146

Image-based object recognition theories, 150

Imagery, effectiveness as study technique, 305t

Imaging studies. See Neuroimaging

Imipramine (Tofranil), 649, 652, 652f

Imitation, in infancy, 441

Immediate reinforcement and punishment, 280f, 280–281

Immigrants, intelligence testing of, 396

Immune response

sickness response and, 569

stress response and, 557

Implicit egotism, 501–502

Implicit learning, 300–304

cognitive approaches to, 301f, 301–302

definition of, 300

explicit learning vs., 302

habituation and, 300

neural pathways and, 303f, 303–304

Implicit memory, 242–244, 242f–244f

Imprinting, 443

Inattentional blindness, 155–156

Incapacitated rape, 209

Independent variable, 58

Individual differences, in intelligence, 416f, 416–417

Induction, of hypnosis, 214

Industrial/organizational psychologists, 33

Industry vs. inferiority stage, 458t

Infancy

babbling in, 356, 360

cognitive development in. See Cognitive development

imitation in, 441

language development in, 355–356

parental advice in, 442, 442f

perceptual and motor development in, 431–432, 432f

self-recognition in, 185–186

sleep need in, 196

social development in, 442–446

Inferential statistics, 62

Influence. See Social influence

Information processing

analytic style of, 30

conduction within neurons and, 84–87

functional neuroimaging and, 122–123

holistic style of, 30

transmission between neurons and, 87f, 87–91

Informational influence, 533–534

Informed consent, 71

Inhibition, collaborative, 247

Initiative vs. guilt stage, 458t

Inner ear, 159, 159f

Inositol, 651

Insight

brain and, 386

in cognitive development, 436

developing in psychoanalysis, 634–635

genius and, 384f, 384–385, 385f

Insomnia, 197–198

treatment of, 660t

Instincts, 331–332, 333

Institutional review boards, 72

Instruction. See Classroom learning; Education

Instruments

definition of, 44

power of, 44, 44f

reliability of, 44, 44f

Insula, placebo effect and, 571

Intellectually disabled people, 416, 417

Intellectually gifted people, 416–417

Intelligence, 395–422

analytic, 405–406

birth order and, 411

creative, 405–406

crystallized, 405

culture and concept of, 406–407

data-based approach to, 403–405, 404f, 405f, 406

definition of, 396

education and, 414–415

emotional, 406

environmental influences on, 411–415, 412f, 413f, 413t, 415

ethnicity and, 417–420

fluid, 405

gender and, 418

genetic influences on, 407–411, 415

group differences in, 417–420

heritability of, 409f, 409–411, 410f

as hierarchy of abilities, 401–403, 402t, 403f

improving, 420–421

individual differences in, 416f, 416–417

judging of, in job interviews, 400

measurement of. See Intelligence tests

mental illness and, 416

middle-level abilities and, 403–407

normal curve of, 416, 416f

practical, 405–406

socioeconomic status and, 413–414

theory-based approach to, 405–407

two-factor theory of, 402

Intelligence quotient, 397–398

Intelligence tests, 396–401

cultural bias of, 418–419

immigrants and, 396

intelligence quotient and, 397–398

prediction made from scores on, 399–400, 400f

Stanford-Binet, 398

WAIS, 398–399, 399t

Intensification, emotional expression and, 326

Intensity

of pain, 165

of sounds, 157, 158t

Intentionality, of consciousness, 182

Interference, proactive and retroactive, 250

Interleaved practice, effectiveness as study technique, 305t

Intermittent reinforcement, 285–286

Intermittent reinforcement effect, 286

Internal forces, 28

Internal locus of control, 493

Internal validity, 62

Internal working model of relationships, 445, 445f

Interneurons, 83

specialization by location, 83, 83f

Interpersonal therapy, 635

Interposition, as depth cue, 151, 151f

Interpretation, in psychoanalysis, 634

Interrogation, elaborative, effectiveness as study technique, 305t

Interval schedules of reinforcement, 283, 284

Intimacy vs. isolation stage, 458t

Intrinsic motivation, 342–344

Introspection, 9

Introversion, 478, 483

Invertebrates, central nervous system of, 107

Ions, 84, 85

Iproniazid, 649

IPT. See Interpersonal therapy

IQ score, 397–398

IRBs. See Institutional review boards

Iris (of eye), 138f

Ironic processes of mental control, 189

SI-10

James-Lange theory, 316, 318

Jealousy, evolutionary psychology’s view of, 26

Jellyfish, central nervous system of, 107

Jews, stereotypes about, 539

JND. See Just noticeable difference

Job interviews, judging of intelligence in, 400

Joint attention, 441, 441f

JOLs. See Judgments of learning

Journals, first, 12

Judgment(s)

frontal lobe and, 102

rhyme, 223

semantic, 223

visual, 224

Judgments of learning, 307–309

Just noticeable difference, 132–133

K complexes, 194, 194f

Kanzi, 365–366

Kava, 651

Ketamine, 211

Keyword mnemonics, effectiveness as study technique, 305t

Kin selection, 516–517

Kohlberg’s theory of moral development, 447–449

Labeling, psychiatric, 592–593

LAD. See Language acquisition device

Language, 3, 352–368. See also Speech

animal use of, 365

basic characteristics of, 353f, 353–354, 354f

behaviorist analysis of, 23

brain and, 7, 24–25, 102, 115, 304, 362, 362f

Broca’s area and, 7, 115, 304, 362, 362f

color processing and, 367f, 367–368

deep vs. surface structure of, 354–355

definition of, 352

development of. See Language development

evolution of, 352

foreign, need to learn, 364

frontal lobe and, 115

morphological rules of, 353–354

of mother, fetal hearing and, 430

personality traits and, 477–478, 478f

phonological rules of, 353

structure of, 353–355

syntactical rules of, 354, 354f

temporal lobe and, 102, 115

thought and, 367–368

time concept and, 368

Wernicke’s area and, 115, 362, 362f

Language acquisition device, 360

Language development, 355–362

active vs. passive, 355

in animals, 365–366

behaviorist theories of, 359

bilingualism and, 363, 363f, 365

brain and, 362–366

cognitive development and, 358–359

distinguishing speech sounds and, 355–356

emergence of grammatical rules and, 357–358

interactionist theories of, 361–362

milestones in, 356–357, 357t

nativist theories of, 360–361

Latency stage, 487–488

Latent content, of dreams, 200–201

Latent learning, 288–289, 289f

Lateral geniculate nucleus, 142–143

Lateral hypothalamus, hunger and, 334, 334f

Latinos, intelligence of, 418

Law of effect, 277f, 277–278, 278f

Learned aversions, 276

Learning, 265–309

in Aplysia, 266, 274

behaviorism and. See Behaviorism

classical conditioning and. See Classical conditioning

in classroom. See Classroom learning

control of, 307–309

definition of, 266

habituation and, 266

implicit. See Implicit learning

judgments of, 307–309

latent, 288–289, 289f

limbic system and, 99

observational. See Observational learning

online, 308–309

operant conditioning and. See Operant conditioning

sensitization and, 266

transfer of, 306

to trust, 290–291

Learning styles, myths about, 124

Lens (of eye), 138f

Leptin, 334

Lesbians. See Sexual orientation

LGN. See Lateral geniculate nucleus

Librium, for generalized anxiety disorder, 597

Lie detection, 327–329, 328f

Light

sensation of, 137f, 137t, 137–340

visible spectrum of, 141, 141f

wavelength of, 137, 137t, 140–141, 141f

Limbic system, 99–100. See also Amygdala; Hippocampus; Hypothalamus

Linear perspective, as depth cue, 151, 151f

Listening, dichotic, 182

Little Albert experiments, 18, 272–273

Lobotomy, 655

Locus of control, 493

Long-term memory

hippocampus and, 231f, 231–232

memory consolidation and, 232–234

Long-term potentiation, 235

Long-term storage, 230–234, 231f

Lorazepam (Ativan), 649

Loudness, 157, 158t

Love, 524–525, 525f. See also Attachment

LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide), 211

balance of neurotransmitters in brain and, 89

LTP. See Long-term potentiation

Lying. See Deception

Magnetic resonance imaging

of brain, 119–120

functional. See Functional magnetic resonance imaging

Magpies, self-recognition in, 185

Major depressive disorder, 586, 601–604

Males. See also Gender

role in reproduction, 429

Malingering, 572–573

Manifest content, of dreams, 200–201

Manipulation

definition of, 57

in experiments, 57–58, 59f

Mantras, 563

MAOIs. See Monoamine oxidase inhibitors

Marijuana, 211–213

legalization of, 217

medical use of, 217

Marriage, 465, 465f, 524–525

couples therapy and, 643

divorce and, 525

mate selection and, 517–518, 519

Masking, emotional expression and, 326

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, 489

Massed practice, 306

Master gland, 99

Matched pairs technique, 56–57

Matched samples technique, 55–57, 56f

Mate, selection of, 517–518, 519

MDMA. See Ecstasy

Mean, 49, 49f

Means-end analysis, 382–383

Means-end relationships, 288

Measurement, in research, 43–47

demand characteristics and, 45–46

instruments for, 44

observer bias and, 46–47

operational definitions and, 44

reliability and, 44, 44f

of strength and direction of correlations, 52–54, 53f, 54f

validity and, 44

Media violence, aggression and, 64

Medial forebrain bundle, operant conditioning and, 291, 291f

Medial prefrontal cortex, self-concept and, 496f, 496–497

Median, 49, 49f

Medical model, of mental disorders, 585

Meditation, 563

mindfulness, 641

Medulla, 96, 97f

Mellaril (thioridazine), 646

Memory(ies), 3, 221–261

amygdala and, 99, 234, 259, 259f

attachment style and, 444, 444f

autobiographical, 495

collaborative, 246–247, 248

construction of, 223

definition of, 222

degradation of, 249

early, 261

Ebbinghaus’s studies of, 21, 249f, 249–250

echoic, 228

encoding in, 222, 223f, 223–227

episodic, 244–246, 246f

explicit, 242–244, 242f–244f

failures of. See Amnesia; Forgetting; Memory failures

false, 256

flashbulb, 258

fMRI and, 122–123

frontal lobes and, 102

hippocampus and, 99, 231f, 231–232, 245–246, 246f, 251, 254, 254f

iconic, 228, 228f

implicit, 242–244, 242f–244f

long-term, 230–234, 231f

loss of. See Amnesia; Memory failures

neurons and, 234–235

procedural, 242, 242f

prospective, 251

reconstructive, 658

retrieval in, 222, 236–241

SI-11

semantic, 244, 245

sensory, 228, 228f

short-term, 229f, 229–230

sleep and, 233

source, 253

storage in, 222, 228–236

subsequent, consequences of retrieval for, 237–239, 238f

tip-of-the-tongue experience and, 252

total, 221–222

working, 229–230

Memory failures, 249–260. See also Amnesia; Forgetting

absentmindedness, 250–251, 259–260

bias, 256–257, 260

blocking, 252

memory misattribution, 252–255, 253f, 254f, 254t, 260

persistence, 257–259, 259f, 260

pros and cons of, 259–260

suggestibility, 255–256, 260

transience, 249f, 249–250, 259

Memory misattribution, 252–255, 253f, 254f, 254t, 260

Men. See also Gender

role in reproduction, 429

Mental abilities. See Abilities; Intelligence

Mental age, 398

Mental control, 188

ironic processes of, 189

Mental disorders, 583–623

anxiety, 593–598

bipolar, 604–607

causes of, 457, 589–590

in children and adolescents, 614–617

classification of, 586–587, 588t

conceptualizing, 585–586

culture and, 29, 589

definition of, 584–585

depressive, 601–604

DSM and, 586–587, 588t, 590, 592

financial costs associated with, 628

iatrogenic, 660–661, 661t

intelligence and, 416

labeling and, 592–593

medical model of, 585

obsessive-compulsive, 598–599

overdiagnosis of, 653

personal and social burdens associated with, 628

personality, 618–620

prevalence of, 628

psychotic, 607–613

Research Domain Criteria Project and, 590– 592, 591t

schizophrenia, 607–613

self-injurious, 621–623, 622f

stress, 599–601, 600f

treatment of. See Biological treatments; Drug therapy; Psychotherapy; Treatment of psychological disorders

Mental placeholders, 224–225

Mental representations, 436

Mere exposure effect, 519–520

Mescaline, 211

Messenger RNA, 108

Metabolism, 338

Methadone, 210

Methamphetamine, neurotransmitters and, 91

Methedrine, 209

Methylphenidate (Ritalin), 420

Micro-expressions, 327

Microvilli, on taste buds, 171

Midbrain, 96f, 96–97, 97f, 107

formation of, 106

Middle ear, 159, 159f

Middle-level abilities, 403–407

Milgram’s obedience studies, 531–533, 532f

Mind

brain and, 6–7, 7f

consciousness and. See Consciousness

cultural influences on, 30

definition of, 2

fundamental questions about, 2–5

ineffective functioning of, 3–5

of others, discovery of, 437–440

problem of other minds and, 179–180, 180f

stress management and, 561–563

structuralism and, 7–10

structure of, psychodynamic approach to, 485–486, 486t

theory of. See Theory of mind

wandering of, 185

Mind-body problem, 180f, 180–181, 181f

Mindfulness meditation, 641

Minimal consciousness, 184

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, 474

Minor tranquilizers, 209

Minorities. See also African Americans

in psychology, 31–32

Mirror neurons, 103

observational learning and, 299, 299f

Misattributions, memory, 252–255, 253f, 254f, 254t, 260

Missing evidence, ignoring, 68–69

MMPI. See Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory

Modafinil, 209

Mode, 49, 49f

Models, in observational learning, 295–296

Modular view, 147

Monkeys. See also Baboons

observational learning of fear in, 297

social development in, 442–443

tool use by, observational learning of, 297–299, 298f

Monoamine oxidase inhibitors, 649, 650f

Monocular depth cues, 150–151, 151f

Monosodium glutamate, 172

Monozygotic twins. See Identical (monozygotic) twins

Mood disorders, 601–607

bipolar, 604–607

depressive, 601–604

Mood stabilizers, 651

Moral development, 446–451

culture and, 449

gender and, 448–449

stages of, 448

ways of feeling and, 449f, 449–451

ways of thinking and, 447–449

Moral intuitionist perspective, 450

Morphemes, 353f, 353–354

Morphine, 205, 210

Morphological rules, 353–354

Morphology, facial expressions and, 327, 327f

Mortality-salience hypothesis, 347

Mothers. See also Caregivers; Parent(s)

artificial, rhesus monkeys and, 442–443

speech of, fetal hearing and, 430

Motion. See Movement

Motivation, 330–347

approach vs. avoidance, 345–347, 346t

conscious vs. unconscious, 344–345

drives and, 332–333

emotion and, 330f, 330–331

for food, 333–338, 334f, 335f, 336t

general, 345

instincts and, 331–332, 333

intrinsic vs. extrinsic, 342–344, 344f

limbic system and, 99

for sex, 338–342, 341f, 342t

Motor cortex, 101–102

dreaming and, 202f, 203

implicit learning and, 304

musical training and, 162

observational learning and, 300

Motor development

in infancy and childhood, 431–432, 432f

timetable of, 432, 432f

Motor neurons, 82–83

Motor skills, cerebellum and, 96

Movement

apparent, 154

basal ganglia and, 100

during dreams, 203

perception of, 153–154

sense of, 166

tegmentum and, 97

voluntary, timing of conscious will and, 181, 181f

MPFC. See Medial prefrontal cortex

MRI. See Magnetic resonance imaging

mRNA. See Messenger RNA

MSG. See Monosodium glutamate

Multidimensional scaling, emotion and, 314–316, 315f

Multilingualism

brain and, 363, 363f, 365

need for, 364

Multiple sclerosis, 82

Multitasking, 135

Muscles, relaxation therapy and, 564

Musical training, auditory processing and, 162

Myelin sheath, 81f, 82

action potential and, 86–97, 87f

formation of, 428

Myelination, 428

Myopia, 138, 139f

Name-letter effect, 501

Narcissism, 501

Narcissistic personality disorder, 619t

Narcolepsy, 198–199

Narcotics. See Opiates

National Basketball Association, sunk-cost fallacy and, 377

National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral research, 71

Nativism, 6

Nativist theory, of language development, 360–361

Natural correlations, 54–55

Natural improvement, of mental disorders, 657

Natural products, for mental disorders, 651–652, 652f

Natural selection, 11

Naturalistic observation, 45–46

NBA. See National Basketball Association

SI-12

Nearsightedness, 138, 139f

Necker cube, 183, 183f

Needs. See also Motivation

for achievement, 344

hierarchy of, 333, 333f, 334f, 489

for sleep, 196–197, 197f

Negative correlation, 53, 53f

Negative punishment, 279, 279t

Negative reinforcement, 279, 279t

Negative symptoms of schizophrenia, 609, 648

Nembutal, 209

Nerves, 92

Nervous system

autonomic, 92f, 93–94

central. See Brain; Central nervous system; Spinal cord

definition of, 92

parasympathetic, 92f, 94

peripheral, 92f, 92–94, 93f

somatic, 92f, 92–93

sympathetic, 92f, 93, 94

Neural pathways. See also “What” pathway; “Where” pathway

emotion and, 319–320, 320f

mapping connectivity of, 120f, 120–122

pain, 164

visual, 144f, 144–145

Neural tube, 106

Neurofeedback, 564–565

Neuroimaging, 119–125

classical conditioning and, 274

functional, 2, 120–123, 121f

mirror neurons and, 103

structural, 119f, 119–120

Neurons, 80–84

action potential of, 85f, 86–87, 87f

axons of, 81, 81f

bipolar cells, 83, 83f

cell body (soma) of, 81, 81f

components of, 80–82, 81f, 82f

conduction in, 84–87

definition of, 80

dendrites of, 81, 81f

electrochemical actions of, 84–91

interneurons, 83

memory and, 234–235

mirror, 103, 299, 299f

motor, 82–83

neurotransmitters and, 87f, 87–91

number of, 80

postsynaptic, 87, 87f

presynaptic, 87, 87f

Purkinje cells, 83, 83f

pyramidal cells, 83, 83f

resting potential of, 84–85, 85f

sensory, 82

synapses between, 82, 82f

transmission between, 87f, 87–91

Neuroscience. See also Brain; Nervous system; Neurons

behavioral, 24–25, 25f

cognitive, 25

early development of, 114–115

Neuroticism, 478

Neurotransmitters, 87f, 87–91. See also Acetylcholine; Dopamine; Endorphins; Gamma-aminobutyric acid; Glutamate; Norepinephrine; Serotonin

altering balance of, 89

depression and, 602–603

drug effects on functioning of, 204

drug mimicry of, 89–91, 90f

endogenous opioids as, 210–211

Neutralizing, emotional expression and, 326, 327f

Nicaraguan sign language, 361–362

Nicotine, 205, 209, 210. See also Smoking

Night terrors, 199

Nodes of Ranvier, 87, 87f

Noise (sound), as chronic stressor, 552–553

Noise (interference), signal detection and, 133

Nonrandom sampling, 65–66

Nonsense syllables, 21

Nonshared environment, 410–411

Nonsuicidal self-injury, 622–623

Norepinephrine, 88

stress and, 554, 567

tricyclic antidepressants and, 649–650

Norm(s), 528–529, 529f

of reciprocity, 528–529

social norming and, 531

Normal curve, 48, 48f

of intelligence, 416, 416f

Normal distribution, 48, 48f

Normative influence, 528–529, 529f

Novum Organum (Bacon), 66

NSSI. See Nonsuicidal self-injury

Nucleus accumbens, operant conditioning and, 291, 291f

Nuremburg Code of 1957, 70

Obedience, 530–533, 532f

Obesity, 335f, 335–338, 336t

avoiding, 576

culture and, 339

Object permanence, 434f, 434–435, 435f

Object recognition, image-based theories of, 150

Object-centered approach, to smell sense, 168

Observation, 42–51

description and, 47–51

double-blind, 47

as empirical method, 42–43

measurement and, 43–47

naturalistic, 45–46

Observational learning, 295–300

in animals, 297–299, 298f

definition of, 295

diffusion chain in, 296–297

of fear, in animals, 297

in humans, 295–297, 296f

models and, 295

neural elements of, 299f, 299–300

of tool use, in animals, 297–299, 298f

Observer bias, 46–47

Obsessive-compulsive disorder, 598–599

treatment of, 655–656

Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder, 619t

Occipital cortex, lateral, vision and, 144, 144f

Occipital lobe, 100f, 101

OCD. See Obsessive-compulsive disorder

Odor(s). See Smell sense

Odorant molecules, 167, 167f

Oedipus conflict, 487

Olanzepine (Zyprexa), 648

Older adults. See Adulthood; Aging

Olfaction. See Smell sense

Olfactory bulb, 167f, 168

Olfactory epithelium, 167, 167f

Olfactory receptor neurons, 167f, 167–168

Omega-3 fatty acids, 651–652, 652f

On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection (Darwin), 11

Online learning, 308–309

Operant behavior, 278–281, 279f, 279t

Operant conditioning, 277–295

cognitive elements of, 288–291

context and, 282–283

definition of, 277

discrimination in, 282

evolutionary elements of, 293f, 293–294

extinction in, 283

generalization in, 282

law of effect and, 277f, 277–278, 278f

neural elements of, 291f, 291–292

reinforcement and punishment in, 18–19, 278–281, 279f, 279t

reinforcement schedules and, 283–286, 284f

shaping and, 286–287

stimulus control and, 282–283

superstitious behavior and, 287–288

Operant conditioning chamber, 18, 19, 278–279, 279f

Operational definitions, 44

Opiates, 205, 210–211

endogenous, 210–211, 571

overdoses of, 270

Opium, 210

Optic nerve, 138f, 139f, 140

Optimism, health and, 574–575

Optimism bias, culture and, 378

Oral stage, 487

Orangutans, self-recognition in, 185

Orbicularis oculi, 323

Orexigenic signals, 333

Organizational encoding, 225–226, 226f

Orgasm phase of human sexual response cycle, 341, 341f

ORNs. See Olfactory receptor neurons

Orphanages, development impairment in, 442

Ossicles, 159, 159f

Outcome expectancies, 493, 493t

Outer ear, 158–159, 159f

An Outline of Psychology (Titchener), 9–10

Overdiagnosis of mental disorders, 653

Overgeneralization, in language development, 357

Oxycontin, 210

Oxytocin, 99, 567

PAG. See Periaqueductal gray

Pain, 164–165

brain and, 165, 570, 570f, 571

gate-control theory of, 165

intensity of, 165

referred, 164–165

Pain pathways, 164

Pain withdrawal reflex, 94, 94f, 164

Panic disorder, 595–596

treatment of, 660t

Papillae, on tongue, 171, 171f

Paranoid personality disorder, 619t

Parasympathetic nervous system, 92f, 94

Parent(s). See also Mothers

intelligence of, children and, 408, 409t

Parent-child relationships

of adolescents, 458f, 458–459

in infancy, 442, 442f. See also Attachment

Parenthood, 455f, 465–466

Parietal cortex, implicit vs. explicit learning and, 303

Parietal lobe, 100f, 101

vision and, 144, 146–147

SI-13

Parkinson’s disease, 89–90, 100

dopamine and, 292

Paroxetine (Paxil), 650

Parsimony, rule of, 41

Parts-based object recognition, 150, 150f

Passionate love, 524–525, 525f

Patient-practitioner interaction, 573, 573f

Patterns of variation, 52

Pavlovian conditioning. See Classical conditioning

Pavlov’s experiments, 267f, 267–269, 268f

Paxil (paroxetine), 650

PCP. See Phencyclidine

Peer relationships, in adolescence, 454, 454f, 459

People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals, 72–73

Pepsi-Cola, 210

Perceived control, over stressful events, 553

Perception(s), 3

auditory. See Hearing; Hearing loss

cognitive development and, 437–438

of color, 154

of consciousness of others, 179–180, 180f

definition of, 130

figure-ground relationship and, 149, 149f

Gestalt perceptual grouping rules and, 148–149, 149f

haptic, 163

of motion, 153–154

of shape, 143, 143f

subliminal, 191

visual. See Visual perception

warping of, by categorization, 539–540, 540f

Perceptual confirmation, 541

Perceptual constancy, 148

Perceptual development, in infancy and childhood, 431

Perceptual priming, 244

Perceptual sensitivity, measurement of, 134

Perfect correlation, 53, 53f

Periaqueductal gray, 165

Peripheral nervous system, 92f, 92–94, 93f

Persistence, as memory failure, 257–259, 259f, 260

Persistent vegetative state, 123

Personal constructs, 492–493

Personality, 471–503

in animals, 482–483

assessment of. See Personality assessment

attraction and, 523

bipolar disorder and, 606–607

brain and, 115, 115f, 483–484

changing study of, 503

consistency across situations, 491

culture and, 481, 492

definition of, 472

describing and explaining, 472–476

existential approach to, 489–490

Eysenck’s theory of, 478

frontal lobes and, 115, 115f

gender and, 481

health and, 574–576

humanistic approach to, 488–489, 489f

psychodynamic approach to. See Psychodynamic approach

psychosexual stages and, 487–488

self and. See Self; Self-concept; Self-esteem

social-cognitive approach to, 490–494

trait approach to. See Personality traits

Personality assessment, 473–476

newer methods for, 475–476

personality inventories for, 473t, 473–474

projective techniques for, 474f, 474–476, 476f

superficial cues and, 479

Personality disorders, 618–620

antisocial, 619t, 619–620

types of, 618–619, 619t

Personality inventories, 473t, 473–474

Personality traits, 476–484

as behavioral dispositions and motives, 476–477

Big Five, 478t, 478–480

in brain, 483–484

core, 477–480

definition of, 476

genetic factors and, 480, 480t, 482

self-concept and, 496

Person-centered therapy, 636

Person-situation controversy, 491

Persuasion, 534–535, 535f

Pessimism, health and, 575

PET. See Positron emission tomography

Phallic stage, 487

Phantom limb syndrome, brain plasticity and, 104

Phencyclidine, 205, 211

Phenomenology, 179

Pheromones, 170

Philosophers, 5–6

Philosophical empiricism, 6

Phlogiston, 41

Phobic disorders, 594–595

Phonemes, 353, 353f

Phonological rules, 353

Phototherapy, 655

Phrenology, 6–7, 7f

Phylogeny, of brain, 106–107

Physical dependence, 205

Physician-patient interaction, 573, 573f

Physiological psychology, 24

Physiological responses

emotions and, 315–318, 317f, 318f

to stress, 554f, 554–558, 555f

Physiology, 7

Piaget’s stages of cognitive development, 433t, 433–437, 434f, 435f, 439–440

Pictorial depth cues, 151, 151f

Pinna, 159, 159f

Pitch, 157, 158t

perception of, 160, 160f

wavelength and, 157, 158t

Pituitary gland, 98f, 99

Place code, 160

Placebo effect, 571

mental disorder treatment and, 657–658, 658f

Placeholders, mental, 224–225

Places of Light (Fernyhough), 261

Planning, frontal lobe and, 102

Plasticity, of brain, 103–105

Plateau phase of human sexual response cycle, 340–341, 341f

Pleasure centers, 291f, 291–292

Pleiotropic effects, 606

PNS. See Peripheral nervous system

Polio, correlation with ice cream consumption, 56

Political views, illusion of explanatory depth and, 390

Pollutants, obesity and, 336

Polygraph, 328f, 328–329

Pons, 96, 97f

Population

definition of, 63

for experiments, 63–66

Portion size, 337

weight control and, 577

Position, sound localization and, 161

Positive correlation, 53, 53f

Positive punishment, 279, 279t

Positive reinforcement, 279, 279t

Positive symptoms of schizophrenia, 608–609, 648

Positively skewed frequency distributions, 49–50, 50f

Positron emission tomography, 120, 121, 121f

Postconventional stage of moral development, 448

Posthypnotic amnesia, 214–215

Postpartum depression, 602

Postsynaptic neurons, 87, 87f

Posttraumatic stress disorder, 599–601, 600f

treatment of, 660t

Potassium ions

action potential and, 85f, 86, 87

resting potential and, 85, 85f, 87

Poverty, socioeconomic status and, 413–414

Power, of instruments, 44, 44f

Practical intelligence, 405–406

Practical reasoning, 388

Practice, distributed, 305–306

Practice testing

effectiveness as study technique, 305t

as study technique, 306

Prayer, for stress management, 567, 567f

Preconventional stage of moral development, 448

Prefrontal cortex

concepts and categories and, 372

implicit vs. explicit learning and, 303

pain and, 570, 570f

Prefrontal lobe

decision making and, 380–381, 381f

dreaming and, 202f, 203, 380–381, 381f

Pregnancy. See also Prenatal development

in adolescence, 457

Prejudice

civil rights movement and, 28

definition of, 513

Prenatal development, 426–430, 427f

prenatal environment and, 428–430

stages of, 427–428

Preoperational stage, 433, 433t, 435

Preparedness theory of phobias, 594–595

Presynaptic neurons, 87, 87f

Pride, 324

Primary appraisal, 559

Primary auditory cortex, 102, 103, 160, 160f

Primary mental abilities, 402, 402t

Primary reinforcement, 279–280

Primary sex characteristics, 452

Primary visual cortex, 102–103

Primates. See also Baboons; Chimpanzees; Monkeys; Orangutans

brains of, 108

Priming, 243f, 243–244

Principles of Physiological Psychology (Wundt), 8

The Principles of Psychology (James), 4, 12

Prisoner’s dilemma, 512f, 512–513

Proactive interference, 250

Probabilities, judging, 374–375

Probability theory, extrasensory perception and, 61

Problem of other minds, 179–180, 180f

Problem solving, 382–387. See also Reasoning

analogical, 383f, 383–384

creativity and insight and, 384–386

ill-defined and well-defined problems and, 382

means-end analysis and, 382–383

SI-14

Procedural memory, 242, 242f

Processing. See also Information processing

auditory, musical training and, 162

bottom-up, taste sense and, 169

color, language and, 367f, 367–368

top-down, taste sense and, 169

transfer-appropriate, 237

Procrastination, 4

Prognosis, 587

Projection, 486t

Projective tests, for personality assessment, 474f, 474–476, 476f

Prolonged exposure, in rational coping, 562

Propranolol, neurotransmitters and, 91

Prospect theory of decision-making errors, 378–379

Prospective memory, 251

Protection, from harm, 71

Protein ions, 85

Prototype theory of concepts, 370, 370f, 371f

Proximity

attraction and, 518–520

perceptual organization and, 148, 149f

Proximodistal rule, 432

Prozac (fluoxetine)

for depression, 602, 650

for generalized anxiety disorder, 597

neurotransmitters and, 91

Psilocybin, 211

Psychiatric hospitals, 646–648

Psychiatric illness. See Mental disorders

Psychiatric labeling, 592–593

Psychiatrists, 630

Psychoactive drugs, 204–213. See also Drug therapy; Substance abuse

definition of, 204

depressant, 207–209

hallucinogenic, 211

marijuana as, 211–213

narcotic, 210–211

stimulant, 209–210

types of, 207t, 207–213

use and abuse of, 204–206

withdrawal symptoms and, 205

Psychoanalysis, 633–635

definition of, 14

influence of, 15

process of, 634–635

Psychoanalytic theory

definition of, 14

of dreams, 200–201, 202

origins of, 13–14

of unconscious, 190–191

Psychodynamic approach, 484–488. See also Psychoanalytic theory

defense mechanisms in, 486, 486t

psychosexual stages and, 487–488

structure of mind and, 485–486, 486t

Psychodynamic psychotherapies, 633–635

Psychological dependence, 205

Psychological disorders. See Mental disorders

Psychologists, 630

clinical, 33, 33f

counseling, 33

industrial/organizational, 33

licensing of, to prescribe medications, 654

school, 33

Psychology

careers in, 32–34

clinical, development of, 13–15

cognitive, 20–23

cultural, 28–30

definition of, 2

developmental, 426

environmental, 552

evolutionary, 25–26

Gestalt, 20–21

as hub science, 34–35

humanistic, 15, 488–489, 489f

physiological, 24

profession of, 31–35

roots of, 5–12

as science, 17

social. See Aggression; Attribution; Social behavior; Social cognition; Social influence; Social psychology; Stereotyping

stimulus-response. See Behaviorism

subfields in, 33, 33f

Psychology of health, 574–579

avoiding sexual risks and, 576, 577–578

cardiovascular, 557–558, 558f

eating wisely and, 576, 577

hardiness and, 575–576

optimism and, 574–575

self-regulation and, 576

smoking and, 578

telomeres and telomerase and, 555–557

Psychology of illness, 568–574

patient-practitioner interaction and, 573, 573f

placebo effect and, 571

recognizing illness and seeking treatment and, 569–571, 570f

sick role and, 572–573

sickness response and, 569

somatic symptom disorders and, 572

stressful events and, 550–551, 551t

The Psychopathology of Everyday Life (Freud), 191

Psychopaths, 620

Psychopharmacology, 648. See also Drug therapy

Psychophysics, 131–136

sensory adaptation and, 135–136

signal detection and, 133–134

thresholds and, 132f, 132–133, 133t

Psychoses, 607. See also Schizophrenia

treatment of, 646, 648

Psychosexual stages, 487–488

Psychosocial development, Erikson’s stages of, 458, 458t

Psychosomatic illness, 572

Psychosurgery, 655–656

Psychotherapists, types of, 630–631

Psychotherapy, 633f, 633–645

behavior, 637–639

childhood memories recalled during, 256

cognitive, 639t, 639–641

cognitive behavioral, 641–642, 652, 652f, 654, 654f

combining with drug therapy, 652, 652f

couples therapy, 643

dangers of, 660–661, 661t

definition of, 633

drug therapy vs., 654, 654f

eclectic, 633

family, 643

Gestalt, 636–637

group, 643–644

interpersonal, 635

person-centered, 636

psychodynamic, 633–635

self-help and support groups and, 644–645

technology for, 642

Psychoticism, 478

PTSD. See Posttraumatic stress disorder

Puberty, 339

definition of, 452

Punishers, 279

Punishment

avoidance of, 345–347, 346t

hedonic motive for social influence and, 527f, 527–528

immediate vs. delayed, 280f, 280–281

motivation and, 343–344, 344f

negative, 279, 279t

in operant conditioning, 278

positive, 279, 279t

primary and secondary, 279–280

Pupil (of eye), 138f

Pure tones, 157

Purkinje cells, 83, 83f

Puzzle box, 277f, 277–278, 278f

Pyramidal cells, 83, 83f

Racial groups. See also African Americans; Asian Americans; Culture; European Americans; Latinos; Minorities

intelligence and, 417–420

Racism, civil rights movement and, 28

Random assignment, 60f, 60–61

Random sampling, 64–65

Range, 50

Ranvier, nodes of, 87, 87f

Rape, incapacitated, 209

Rape trauma, rational coping and, 562

Rapid cycling bipolar disorder, 605

Ratio IQ, 398

Ratio schedules of reinforcement, 283, 285–286

Rational choice theory, 374

Rational coping, 561–562

Rationalization, 486t

Raven’s Progressive Matrices Test, 405, 405f, 418

RDoC. See Research Domain Criteria Project

Reaction formation, 486t

Reaction time, 8

Reactivity, empirical method and, 43

Reappraisal, emotion regulation and, 320–321

Reasoning, 388–392

brain and, 391, 391f

definition of, 388

illusion of explanatory depth and, 390

moral, 447–449

practical, 388

syllogistic, 390–391

theoretical (discursive), 388–389

Rebound effect of thought suppression, 188f, 188–189

Receptors

auditory, 159f, 159–160

body position, movement, and balance and, 166

of dendrites, 87, 88

olfactory, 167f, 167–168

pain, 165

taste, 170, 171f, 171–172

thermoreceptors, 163

touch, 163, 163f

visual, 138, 139f, 140, 141f, 142

Reciprocal altruism, 517

Reciprocity, norm of, 528–529

Recognition

false, 254

of illness, 569–571, 570f

of self, 185–186

SI-15

theories of, 150, 150f

visual, 147–150

Reconsolidation, of memories, 234

Reconstructive memory, 658

Recreational drugs. See Substance abuse

Referred pain, 164–165

Reflexes, 107

in infancy, 431

pain withdrawal, 94, 94f, 164

rooting, 431

spinal, 94, 94f

sucking, 431

Refractory period, 86, 341

Reframing, 562–563

Regression, 486t

Rehearsal, 229

Reinforcement

immediate vs. delayed, 280f, 280–281

intermittent, 285–286

negative, 279, 279t

in operant conditioning, 18–19, 278

positive, 279, 279t

primary and secondary, 279–280

schedules of, 283–286, 284f

time-out from, 638

Reinforcers, 279

culture and, 281

Relatedness, degree of, 109

Relationships, 524–525

chronic stressors related to, 552

couples therapy and, 643

divorce and, 525

in infancy. See Attachment

internal working model of, 445, 445f

love and, 524–525, 525f

marriage, 465, 465f, 524–525

parent-child. See Parent-child relationships

peer, in adolescence, 454, 454f, 459

social exchange and, 525

Relative(s). See also Fraternal (dizygotic) twins; Identical (monozygotic) twins; Parent(s); Siblings

intelligence in, 408–409, 409t

Relative height, as depth cue, 151, 151f

Relative size, as depth cue, 151, 151f

Relativism, 29

Relaxation response, 564

Relaxation therapy, 564

Reliability, 44, 44f

Religiosity, for stress management, 567, 567f

REM sleep, 194–195

deprivation of, 196

dreaming and, 202f, 202–203

Remembering. See Amnesia; Forgetting; Memory(ies); Memory failures

Representativeness heuristic, 376–377

Repression, 190, 486t

Repressive coping, 561

Reproduction, male role in, 429

Reptiles, central nervous system of, 107

Rereading, effectiveness as study technique, 305t

Research, 39–75

animal subjects in, 72–73

causation and, 54–62

correlation and, 51t, 51–54

description and, 47–51

drawing conclusions and, 62–66

empiricism and, 40–43

ethics and, 70–74

experiments in. See Experiment(s)

explanation and, 51–70

fraud in, 73–74

measurement and, 43–47

observation and. See Observation

scientific method and, 40–42, 66

Research Domain Criteria Project, 590–592, 591t

Resistance, in psychoanalysis, 634–635

Resistance phase of general adaptation syndrome, 555

Resolution phase of human sexual response cycle, 341, 341f

Response(s)

conditioned, 268, 269, 270, 275

definition of, 18

unconditioned, 267, 275

Responsibility

diffusion of, 514–515, 515f

joint decisions and, 516

Resting potentials, 84–85, 85f, 87

Resting state functional connectivity, 121

Reticular formation, 96, 97f

personality and, 483

Retina, 138, 138f, 139f

Retinal ganglion cells, 139f, 140

Retinal surface, 138f, 139f

Retirement communities, 467

Retrieval, 222

components of, 239–241, 240f

consequences for subsequent memory, 237–239, 238f

state-dependent, 237

Retrieval cues, 236–237

Retrieval-induced forgetting, 238, 240

Retroactive interference, 250

Retrograde amnesia, 232

Reuptake, 88

Reversibility, in cognitive development, 436

Reward(s). See also Reinforcement

hedonic motive for social influence and, 527f, 527–528

intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivation and, 342–344, 344f

Reward prediction error, 292

RGCs. See Retinal ganglion cells

Rhyme judgments, 223

Risk, trust and, 512f, 512–513

Risk-benefit analysis, ethics of research and, 71

Risky sexual behavior, avoiding, 576, 577–578

Risperidone (Risperidal), 648

Ritalin (methylphenidate), 420

Road rage, 558

Rods (retinal), 138, 139f, 140, 141f

Romantic relationships. See Love; Marriage

Rooting reflex, 431

Rorschach Inkblot Test, 474, 474f

Rubin vase, 149, 149f

Rule of parsimony, 41

Runner’s high, 210

SAD. See Seasonal affective disorder

Sadness, 323f, 324

St. John’s wort, 651

St. Mary’s of Bethlehem Hospital, 647

Saltatory conduction, 87

SAM-e, 651

Samples, 64

Sampling

nonrandom, 65–66

random, 64–65

Scared straight, 661, 661t

Schachter and Singer’s two-factor theory of emotion, 317f, 317–318

Schedule I Controlled Substances, 212

Schedules of reinforcement, 283–286, 284f

Schizoid personality disorder, 619t

Schizophrenia, 607–613

biochemical factors in, 610

brain in, 610–611, 611f, 612f, 648

cognitive symptoms of, 609

definition of, 607

favorable outcomes in, 613

genetic factors in, 609–610, 610f

negative symptoms of, 609, 648

neuroanatomy of, 611, 611f, 612f

positive symptoms of, 608–609, 648

psychological factors in, 611–612

treatment of, 646, 648

twin studies of, 109–110

Schizotypal personality disorder, 619t

School psychologists, 33

Scientific method, 40–42, 66

SCL. See Skin conductance level

Scopes trial, 26

Sea slug. See Aplysia

Seasonal affective disorder, 602

Seconal, 209

Secondary appraisal, 559

Secondary gains, of illness, 572–573

Secondary reinforcement, 279–280

Secondary sex characteristics, 452

Second-order conditioning, 269–270

Secure attachment style, 444–446

Security, self-esteem and, 500

Sedatives, for insomnia, 197–198

Seizures, crossing of corpus callosum by, 115–116

Selective attention, 135

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, 91, 650, 650f

Selectivity

of consciousness, 182–183

sexual partner selection and, 517–518, 519

Self, 494–502

theory of, 495

Self-actualizing tendency, 488–489, 489f

Self-concept, 495–497

brain and, 496f, 496–497

causes and effects of, 497

definition of, 495

organization of, 495–497, 496f

self-narrative and, 497

Self-consciousness, 184–186

Self-esteem, 498t, 498–502

aggression and, 510

definition of, 498

desire for, 499–501

implicit egotism and, 501–502

sources of, 498–499

Self-explanation, effectiveness as study technique, 305t

Self-fulfilling prophecies, 541, 541f

Self-help groups, 644–645

Self-injury, suicide, 621–622, 622f

Self-narrative, 495–496

self-concept and, 497

Self-recognition, 494–495

Self-regulation, health and, 576

Self-relevance, 496

Self-reports, 473t, 473–474

Self-schemas, 496

Self-selection, 59

Self-serving bias, 500–501

SI-16

Self-verification, 497

Selye’s general adaptation syndrome, 554–555

Semantic encoding, 223–224, 225f

Semantic judgments, 223

Semantic memory, 244, 245

Semantics, 354

Sensation. See also Body senses; Hearing; Psychophysics; Smell sense; Taste sense; Visual sensation

definition of, 130

dream consciousness and, 199

of sound, 157–158, 158t

Sensitization, definition of, 266

Sensorimotor stage, 433, 433t

Sensorineural hearing loss, 161

Sensory adaptation, 135–136

Sensory branding, 129

Sensory memory, 228, 228f

Sensory neurons, 82

Sensory receptors, transduction and, 130–131, 131t

Sensory storage, 228, 228f

Serial reaction time task, implicit learning and, 302

Serotonin, 88, 91

drug effects on functioning of, 204

tricyclic antidepressants and, 650

Serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors, 650

SES. See Socioeconomic status

Sex characteristics, primary and secondary, 452

Sex chromosomes, 108

of zygote, 427

Sex determination, X chromosomes, 108

Sex education, 578

adolescent sexual behavior and, 457

Sexual behavior

during adolescence, 455–457, 455f–457f

human sexual response cycle and, 340–341, 341f

hypothalamus and, 98

motivation for, 338–340

reasons for, 341–342, 342t

risky, avoiding, 576, 577–578

selection of sexual partners and, 517–518, 519

Sexual orientation

during adolescence, 455–456, 456f

determinants of, 456

odors and, 170

Sexually transmitted diseases, 576

avoiding, 576, 577–578

Tuskegee experiment and, 70

Shame, 324

Shape, perception of, 143, 143f

Shaping, 286–287

Shared environment, 410–411

Shock therapy, 654–655

Short-term storage, 229f, 229–230

Siblings. See also Fraternal (dizygotic) twins; Identical (monozygotic) twins; Twins

intelligence in, 408, 409t

Sick role, 572

Sickness response, 569

Sign(s)

in mental disorders, 585

symbols vs., 324

Sign language

animal use of, 365

babbling and, 356

of Nicaraguan children, 361–362

Signal detection theory, 133–134

Significance, statistical, 61–62

Similarity

attraction and, 523–524

perceptual organization and, 148, 149f

Simplicity, perceptual organization and, 148, 149f

Sincerity, of facial expressions, 327, 327f

Single cures, 587

Single-neuron feature detectors, 143, 143f

SIT. See Stress inoculation training

Situation, stress management and, 565–568

Situational attributions, 543–544, 544f

Size, illusions of, 152–153, 153f

Skepticism, 69

Skewed frequency distributions, 49–50, 50f

Skin conductance level, 187

Skinner box, 18, 19, 278–279, 279f

Skinner’s experiments, 278–282, 279f, 279t

Sleep, 193–199

cycle of, 193–195, 194f, 195f

deprivation of, 196

disorders of, 197–199

dreaming and. See Dream(s)

hypnotics to aid, 649

memory and, 233

need for, 196–197, 197f

REM. See REM sleep

reticular formation and, 96

Sleep apnea, 198

Sleep paralysis, 198

Sleep spindles, 194, 194f

Sleep terrors, 199

Sleeping pills, 197–198

Sleepwalking, 198

Smell sense, 167f, 167–168, 170, 170f

absolute threshold for, 133t

social behavior and, 170, 170f

transduction and, 131t

Smiling, 326

Smoking. See also Nicotine

neurotransmitter balance in brain and, 89

during pregnancy, 430

regulation prohibiting, 579–580

stopping, 578

Snellen chart, 136

Sniffing, of toxic inhalants, 209

Snoring, sleep apnea and, 198

SNRIs. See Serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors

Social anxiety disorder, 586

Social behavior, 508–526

aggression and. See Aggression

altruism and, 516–517

in animals, 508

attraction and, 518–524

cooperation and, 512–515

relationships and, 524–525

sexual partner selection and, 517–518, 519

smell sense and, 170, 170f

Social brain hypothesis, 538

Social cognition, 537–545

attribution and, 543–545, 544f

definition of, 537

stereotyping and, 538–543

Social development, 442–446. See also Attachment

Social exchange, 525

Social influence, 526–537

accuracy motive for, 526, 533–537

approval motive for, 526, 528–533

conformity and, 529–530, 530f

consistency and, 535–537, 536f

culture and, 528

definition of, 526

hedonic motive for, 526, 527f, 527–528

informational, 533–534

normative, 528–529, 529f

obedience and, 530–533, 532f

persuasion and, 534–535, 535f

on remembering, 246–247

social norming and, 531

Social loafing, 514–515

Social norming, 531

Social phobia, 594

exposure therapy for, 638, 638t

treatment of, 654, 654f

Social psychology, 27–28, 507–545. See also Aggression; Attribution; Social behavior; Social cognition; Social influence; Stereotyping

definition of, 508

historical forces shaping, 28

Social referencing, 441

Social role theory, 481

Social stimuli, in infancy, 431

Social support

for stress management, 566–567

support groups for, 644–645

Social workers, 630–631

Social-cognitive approach, 490–494

consistency of personality across situations, 491

personal constructs and, 491–493

personal goals and expectancies and, 493, 493t

Sociobiology (Wilson), 26

Socioeconomic status

intelligence and, 413–414

stress and, 557

Socioemotional selectivity theory, 463f, 463–464, 464f

Sociopaths, 620

Sodium ions

action potential and, 85f, 86, 87

resting potential and, 85, 85f, 87

Sodium lactate, panic disorder and, 596

Soma, of neurons, 81, 81f

Somatic nervous system, 92f, 92–93

Somatic symptom disorders, 572

Somatoform disorders, 572

Somatosenses, 163–166. See also Pain; Touch

Somatosensory cortex, 101–102, 103

pain and, 570, 570f

Somnambulism, 198

Sound, localizing sources of, 161

Sound waves, 157–158, 158t

Source memories, 253

Specific factors, 403, 403f

Specific phobias, 594

Speech. See also Language; Language development

culture and tone of voice and, 329

detection of, musical training and, 162

disorganized, in schizophrenia, 608

distinguishing sounds of, 355–356

of mother, fetal hearing and, 430

telegraphic, 356–357

Speed. See Amphetamines

Spinal cord, 107

collaboration with brain, 94–95, 95f

hindbrain and, 96

SI-17

pain withdrawal reflex and, 164

regions of, 95f

Spinal reflexes, 94, 94f

Spirituality, for stress management, 567, 567f

Split-brain procedure, 116f, 116–117, 117f

Spontaneous recovery, 271

Sports, chronic traumatic encephalopathy and, 79–80

S-R psychology. See Behaviorism

SSRIs. See Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors

Standard deviation, 50f, 50–51

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale, 398

State-dependent retrieval, 237

Statistical significance, 61–62

Statistics

descriptive, 48–51, 49f, 50f

inferential, 62

STDs. See Sexually transmitted diseases

Stereophonic hearing, 161

Stereoscope, 152

Stereotype threat, 541, 541f

Stereotyping, 538–543

automatic, 542–543

civil rights movement and, 28

definition of, 538

inaccurate, 539, 539f

overuse of, 539–540, 540f

self-perpetuating, 541, 541f

Stimulants, 209–210

Stimulus(i)

conditioned, 268, 269, 270, 275

construal of, 22

discriminative, 282

just noticeable difference and, 132–133

psychophysics and. See Psychophysics

reaction time and, 8

sensory adaptation and, 135–136

signal detection and, 133–134

social, in infancy, 431

thresholds and, 132f, 132–133, 133t

unconditioned, 267, 269, 275

Stimulus control, in operant conditioning, 282–283

Stimulus-response psychology. See Behaviorism

Stirrup (of ear), 159, 159f

Storage, 222

long-term, 230–234, 231f

neurons and synapses and, 234–235

sensory, 228, 228f

short-term, 229f, 229–230

Strange Situation, 444

Street drugs. See Psychoactive drugs; Substance abuse

Stress, 549–580

aging and, 555–557

bipolar disorder and, 606

chronic stressors and, 551–553

definition of, 550

discrimination related to, 552

generalized anxiety disorder and, 597

health and. See Psychology of health

illness and. See Psychology of illness

immune response and, 557

interpretation of, 559

management of. See Stress management

of moving to a new country and culture, 566

perceived control over stressful events and, 553

physical reactions to, 554f, 554–558, 555f

posttraumatic stress disorder and, 599–601, 600f, 660t

psychological reactions to, 558–560

sources of, 550–553

stressful events and, 550–551, 551t

Stress inoculation training, 562–563

Stress management, 561–568

aerobic exercise for, 565

biofeedback for, 564–565

humor for, 568

meditation for, 563

rational coping for, 561–562

reframing for, 562–563

relaxation for, 564

religious experiences for, 567, 567f

repressive coping for, 561

social support for, 566–567

Striatum, 100

DRD2 gene and, 591

Stroop task, 216

Structural brain imaging, 119f, 119–120

Structuralism, 7–10

Study skills, improving, 10–11

Study techniques, 304–306, 305t

Subcortical structures, 97–100, 98f

Sublimation, 486t

Subliminal perception, 191

Substance abuse. See also specific substances

of cognitive enhancers, 420–421

context and drug overdoses and, 270

regulation of, 212–213

Substantia nigra, 100

Subtyping, 541

Successive approximations, 287

Sucking reflex, 431

Suggestibility, 255–256, 260

Suicide, 621

attempted, 621–622, 622t

childhood abuse and, 112

Sulcus(i), 100, 100f

Summarization, effectiveness as study technique, 305t

Sunk-cost fallacy, 377

Superego, 485

Superstitious behavior, operant conditioning of, 287–288

Support groups, 644–645

Suppression, of emotional expression, 320

Surface structure, of language, 354–355

Surgery

anesthesia for, 177

of brain, 655–656

Surprise, 323f, 324

Survival-related information, encoding of, 226–227, 227f

Susceptibility, to hypnosis, 214

Syllogistic reasoning, 390–391

Symbols, signs vs., 324

Symmetry

attractiveness and, 522

facial expressions and, 327

Sympathetic nervous system, 92f, 93, 94

Symptoms

insensitivity to, 570

in mental disorders, 585

of schizophrenia, 608–609, 648

withdrawal, psychoactive drugs and, 205

Synapses, 82, 82f

memory and, 234–235

Synaptic proliferation, during adolescence, 452, 453f

Synaptic pruning, during adolescence, 452, 453f

Synaptic transmission, 87, 87f

Syntactical rules, 354, 354f

Syphilis, Tuskegee experiment and, 70

Systematic persuasion, 534–535, 535f

Tactile perception. See Touch sense

Tardive dyskinesia, 646, 648

Tastant molecules, 171

Taste buds, 170, 171, 171f

Taste sense, 170–172, 171f

absolute threshold for, 133t

bottom-up and top-down influences on, 169

transduction and, 131t

TAT. See Thematic Apperception Test

Teaching machines, 19

Technology

computer impact on psychological thinking and, 23

driving while using cell phones and, 135, 251

for psychotherapy, 642

Tectum, 96–97, 97f

Teenagers. See Adolescence

Tegmentum, 97, 97f

Telegraphic speech, 356–357

Telomerase, 556–557

Telomeres, 556–557

Temperament

attachment and, 445

vulnerability to phobias and, 595

Templates, 150

Temporal codes, 160

Temporal lobe, 100f, 102

Wernicke’s area in, 115

Tend-and-befriend response, 567

Ten-Item Personality Inventory, 473t

Teratogens, 428–430

Terminal buttons, 87

Terror Management Theory, 347

Terrorist attack of 9/11

altruism and, 517

stress caused by, 553–554

Test(s), studying for, 305–306

Testing. See also Intelligence tests; Personality assessment

attention and, 306–307

Testosterone

aggression and, 510, 510f

odor related to, 170

sexual desire and, 339, 340

sexual orientation and, 456

Tetrahydrocannabinol, 205, 211

Texture gradient, as depth cue, 151, 151f

Thalamus, 98, 98f

placebo effect and, 571

THC. See Tetrahydrocannabinol

Thematic Apperception Test, 475, 475f

Theoretical reasoning, 388–389

Theories, 40–43

Theory of mind, 438–439

cognitive development and, 438–439

Theory-based approach, 405–407

Therapy. See Biological treatments; Drug therapy; Psychotherapy; Treatment of psychological disorders

SI-18

Thermoreceptors, 163

Theta waves, 194, 194f

Thinking. See Cognition; Cognitive development; Reasoning; Thought

Third-variable problem, 55f, 55–57, 56f

Thirst, hypothalamus and, 98

Thought, 367–392. See also Cognition; Cognitive development; Reasoning

abstract, frontal lobe and, 102

concepts and categories and, 369–373

decision making and. See Decision making

dream consciousness and, 199

language and, 367–368

moral, 447–449

problem solving and. See Problem solving

reasoning and. See Reasoning

thinking aloud and, 186t, 186–187

time concept and, 368

Thought suppression, 188f, 188–189

Threats, challenges vs., 559

Thresholds, 132f, 132–133, 133t

absolute, 132, 132f, 133t

action potential and, 86

Timbre, 158, 158t

Time concept, language and, 368

Time-out from reinforcement, 638

Timing

of conscious will, 181, 181f

facial expressions and, 327

of reinforcement and punishment, 280f, 280–281

sound localization and, 161

TIPI. See Ten-Item Personality Inventory

Tip-of-the-tongue experience, 252

TMS. See Transcranial magnetic stimulation

Tobacco use. See Nicotine; Smoking

Tofranil (imipramine), 649, 652, 652f

Token economies, 638

Tolerance to drugs, 205, 270, 649

Tolman’s means-end relationships, 288

Tone of voice, culture and, 329

Tongue, papillae on, 171, 171f

Tools, use in animals, observational learning of, 297–299, 298f

Top-down control, 165

Top-down processing, taste sense and, 169

Topology, 22

Touch sense

absolute threshold for, 133t

parietal lobe and, 101

sensation of, 163f, 163–164

transduction and, 131t

Tourette’s disorder, treatment of, 660t

Toxic inhalants, 209

Traits. See Personality traits

Tranquilizers, minor, 209

Transcranial magnetic stimulation, 123–124, 655

Transduction

auditory, 159f, 159–160

sensory receptors and, 130–131, 131t

visual, 131t

Transfer, of learning, 306

Transfer-appropriate processing, 237

Transference, in psychoanalysis, 635

Transience

of consciousness, 183

of memory, 249f, 249–250, 259

Trauma. See Brain damage; Stress

Treatment of psychological disorders, 627–661

access to, 628–629

approaches to, 631–632

biological. See Biological treatments; Drug therapy

comparison of approaches to, 659–661, 660t, 661t

culture and, 632

drug therapy as. See Drug therapy

effectiveness of, 656–661

ethical standards for, 661

failure to seek, 629–630

illusions about, 657–658

natural improvement and, 657

outcome studies of, 658–659

placebo effects and, 657–658, 658f

psychotherapy. See Psychotherapy

reconstructive memory and, 658

Treatment outcome studies, 658–659

Trephining, 646

Tricyclic antidepressants, 649–650, 650f

Trust

learning, 290–291

risk and, 512f, 512–513

Trust vs. mistrust stage, 458t

Turf toe, 165

Tuskegee experiment, 70

Twins

fraternal. See Fraternal (dizygotic) twins

identical. See Identical (monozygotic) twins

intelligence in, 408, 409t

schizophrenia in, 109–110

sexual orientation of, 456

Two-factor theory of emotion, 317f, 317–318

Two-factor theory of intelligence, 402

Type A behavior pattern, 558

Type B behavior pattern, 558

Typical antipsychotics, 646, 648

Ultimatum game, 513

Ultrasocial species, 508

Umami, 171–172

Unconditioned response, 267, 275

Unconditioned stimulus, 267, 269, 275

Unconscious, 14, 189–192

cognitive, 191–192, 192f

definition of, 485

dynamic, 190–191

Freudian, 190–191

modern view of, 191–192, 192f

Unconscious motivations, 344–345

Unconscious stereotyping, 542–543

Unconsciousness, during surgery, 177

Uncorrelated variables, 53, 53f

Uncritical acceptance, dream consciousness and, 199

Underlining, effectiveness as study technique, 305t

Understanding, in rational coping, 562

Unipolar depression, 601–604

Unity, of consciousness, 182

Universality hypothesis, 323f, 323–324

An Unquiet Mind: A Memoir of Moods and Madness (Jamison), 605

Unwanted behaviors, eliminating, 638

Unwanted emotional responses, reducing, 638t, 638–639

UR. See Unconditioned response

US. See Unconditioned stimulus

Valence-centered approach, to smell sense, 168

Validity

external, 62–63

internal, 62

Validity scales, of MMPI, 474

Valium (diazepam)

for anxiety disorders, 209, 597, 649

effects on consciousness, 204

for sleep problems, 209

Values, attraction and, 523

Variability

empirical method and, 42

statistics describing, 49, 49f, 50f, 50–51

Variable(s), 52

correlation of, 51t, 51–54

dependent, 58

independent, 58

third-variable problem and, 55f, 55–57, 56f

Variable-interval schedule, 284

Variable-ratio schedule, 285

Variation, patterns of, 52

Vegetative state, persistent, 123

Venlafaxine (Effexor), 650

Ventral visual stream, 144, 144f, 145

Ventricles, of brain, in schizophrenia, 611, 611f

Ventromedial hypothalamus, hunger and, 334, 334f

Verbal Behavior (Skinner), 23

Vertebrates, central nervous system of, 107

Vestibular system, 166

VI. See Variable-interval schedule

View-Master, 152

Violence. See also Aggression

media, aggression and, 64

Visible spectrum, 141, 141f

Vision. See Visual perception; Visual sensation

Visual acuity, 136–137

Visual cortex

concepts and categories and, 372

feature detectors in, 118–119

primary, 102–103

Visual form agnosia, 144, 144f

Visual imagery encoding, 224–225, 225f

Visual judgments, 224

Visual pathways, 144f, 144–145

Visual perception, 145–157

attention and, 145–147

binding problem and, 146

of change, 154–156, 155f

of depth and size, 150–153

feature-integration theory and, 146

hallucinations and, 173

illusory conjunctions and, 146

loss of. See Blindness

of motion, 153–154

occipital lobe and, 101

recognizing objects and, 147–150

transduction and, 131t

Visual sensation, 136–145

absolute threshold for, 133t

acuity and, 136–137

brain and, 142–145, 143f

of color, 140–142, 141f, 142f

eye and, 138, 138f, 139f

light and, 137f, 137t, 137–140

loss of. See Blindness

parietal lobe and, 144

photoreceptors and, 138, 139f, 140, 141f

Visual streaming, 144f, 144–145

SI-19

Voice, tone of, culture and, 329

VR. See Variable-ratio schedule

WAIS. See Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale

Walden II (Skinner), 19

War on Drugs, 212

Washoe, 365, 366

Wavelength

of light waves, 137, 137t, 140–141, 141f

of sound waves, 157, 158t

Weber’s law, 133

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, 398–399, 399t

Weight, body. See also Obesity

eating wisely and, 576, 577, 579

loss of, 577

Wellbutrin (bupropion), 650

Wernicke’s aphasia, 362

Wernicke’s area, 115, 362, 362f

“What” pathway

in touch, 163–164

visual, 144, 144f, 145, 146–147

“Where” pathway

in touch, 163–164

visual, 144, 144f, 145

Wine, price of, taste and, 169

Withdrawal, from drugs, 205

Women. See also Gender; Mothers

in psychology, 31–32

Working memory, 229–230

”X.” See Ecstasy

Xanax (alprazolam), 209, 649

Y chromosomes, 108

Yawning, contagious, 439

Zimbardo’s prisoner study, 532

Zoloft, for depression, 602

Zolpidem (Ambien), 649

Zombies, 179

Zygomatic major, 323, 324, 326

Zygote, 427

Zyprexa (olanzepine), 648

SI-20

SI-21

SI-23

SI-24