Important Issues in Psychology
Throughout this chapter, we have used the Chilean mining disaster as a subject for many hypothetical research endeavors, including studies on depression, aggression, and cognition. What we haven’t yet addressed is the enormous ethical responsibility psychologists take on when they decide to conduct these types of studies. Psychologists do not study dinosaur fossils or atomic particles. They study humans and other living creatures who experience pain, fear, and other complex feelings, and it is their professional duty to treat them with dignity and respect.
Research Ethics
LO 11 Demonstrate an understanding of research ethics.
Like most other professionals, psychologists have agreed that it is important to follow specific guidelines to help ensure ethical behavior in the field. Professional organizations such as the American Psychological Association (APA), the Association for Psychological Science (APS), and the British Psychological Society (BPS) provide written guidelines their members agree to abide by. These guidelines ensure the ethical treatment of research participants (human and animal). They encourage psychologists to do no harm; safeguard the welfare of humans and animals in their research; know their responsibilities to society and community; maintain accuracy in research, teaching, and practice; and respect human dignity, to name a few (APA, 2010a).
Confidentiality
Confidentiality is a primary issue in psychology. Researchers must take steps to safeguard research data from misuse or theft. Psychologists who offer therapy services are obligated to keep client and therapy session information confidential; in fact, they are required to keep this information safeguarded in their offices. Confidentiality enables clients to speak freely about deeply personal issues. Furthermore, it also ensures that participants will feel confident when they share sensitive information obtained by researchers (such as information on sexuality or controversial issues), because they may rest assured it will be maintained securely.
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Deception
Other important ethical topics are informed consent and debriefing, both of which we discussed earlier. Informed consent is the process by which research participants acknowledge their understanding of their role in the study and sign off on it. Debriefing refers to the process in which researchers disclose important information to their participants after wrapping up a study. This would include informing participants about any deception. Remember that researchers sometimes use deception in order to uncover characteristics of human behavior. Throughout this textbook, you will read about experiments in which the participants did not know ahead of time what was being studied. In addition, they were often purposely lied to as a part of the manipulation, or to conceal what was being studied until the debriefing phase. It is important to note that no one is ever forced to become a participant in a research study. Participation in research is completely voluntary, and participants can drop out of studies at any time.
THINK again
Psychology in the Media
As you venture deeper into the study of psychology, you may find yourself becoming increasingly skeptical of media reports on psychological research. We encourage a healthy dose of skepticism. Although many news stories on scientific findings are accurate and balanced, others are flawed and overhyped. Look at these headlines about a 2012 study on the psychological impact of pacifier, or “Binkie,” use:
“Pacifier use can lead to emotional problems in boys, study finds” (Fox News, 2012, September 19).
“UW study says boys’ pacifier use limits social development” (Seely, 2012, September 19).
SCIENCE, SPIN OR SOUND BITES?
It sounds as if pacifiers are causing emotional problems in males. We must have a cause-and-effect relationship, right? Wrong. The following is a rough description of the research, which is actually a combination of three studies described in one article. In a study of elementary school children, researchers found that boys (but not girls) who had used pacifiers during infancy were more likely to have trouble mimicking the facial expressions of others. (Mirroring facial expressions is believed to promote empathy, or the ability to put oneself in someone else’s shoes, and pacifiers could potentially interrupt the development of this skill by blocking muscles around the mouth.) Additional studies of college students linked pacifier use during infancy to lower levels of empathy and emotional intelligence, but only in males (Niedenthal et al., 2012). Provocative as these findings may be, they do not allow us to conclude that pacifiers cause emotional impairments. Isn’t it possible that the reverse is true? Infants with emotional problems are more likely to be given pacifiers (thus the emotional problems are leading to the pacifier use)? The authors explicitly highlight this problem: “The studies do not allow us to draw causal conclusions, as the children were not randomly assigned to pacifier use” (Niedenthal et al., 2012, p. 392). And while the researchers did control for some variables such as the mother’s education and the child’s anxiety level, it is impossible to control for every third variable that might influence emotional health. Can you think of any other factors that could impact the results?
The take-home message: If a news report claims that X causes Y, don’t automatically assume that the media has it right. The only way to really understand the results and limitations of a psychological study is to read it for yourself.
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THE RESCUE
Tuesday, October 12, 2010: The miners had been dreaming of this day for the last 10 weeks. Rescuers had finally blasted an escape tunnel down to the workshop area, a small cavern located above the safety shelter (Franklin, 2011). They would soon be lowering an elevator-like contraption known as the “Phoenix” down the tunnel to retrieve the miners. One by one, each man would travel back to the surface of the earth and into the arms of his family and friends. There would be a few onlookers, including President Piñera, a thousand journalists, and one billion people watching the rescue live on television (Craze & Crooks, 2010, October 13).
The first to ascend would be those believed to be most mentally stable. If something went wrong during the initial ascent, the rescuers wanted someone who could keep his cool onboard (Kraul, 2010, October 11). Florencio Ávalos, the soft-spoken 31-year-old father of two young boys, would go first, followed by the charismatic Mario Sepúlveda, 39; Juan Illanes, 51; and a 23-year-old Bolivian named Carlos Mamani. Next to go would be the men with medical problems, followed by those in good physical shape. The very last man to surface would be the determined and devoted leader, 54-year-old Luis Urzúa (CBS/AP, 2010, October 12; Craze & Crooks, 2010, October 13; Kraul, 2010, October 11).
The image of the first miner, Florencio Ávalos, emerging from the Phoenix capsule, greeting the president, and reuniting with his family is beyond description. Even the most stoic among us were moved by the image of his 9-year-old son weeping and trembling.
When Sepúlveda, otherwise known as “Super Mario,” emerged, the mood was also dramatic, but in a different way. “Hey old woman!” Sepúlveda said to his wife through the metal mesh of the rescue capsule (Franklin, 2011, p. 253). Leaping from the capsule, he fell to his knees and began to unload a bag of rocks—souvenirs from his 10-week entombment. Then he threw his arms around President Piñera three times in a row, ran around giving high fives and hugs to rescuers, and led the crowd in a “Viva Chile!” chant.
The rescue effort spanned 2 days. When all was said and done, all 33 men had been brought to safety. Now everyone wondered how the miners would cope with their new celebrity status. These 33 men had gone from being ordinary working people to the most sought after interview subjects in the world. Reporters, publishing companies, and Hollywood all wanted a piece of Los 33. The group met with movie stars, attended galas, and led parades through Disneyland. One of the miners, Edison Peña, ran the New York City Marathon just weeks after emerging from the mine (Pearson & Siemaszko, 2010, November 6). He also appeared on The Late Show with David Letterman doing an Elvis impression (Pearson & Siemaszko, 2010, November 6).
But the same Peña who was seen gyrating on the The Late Show was later hospitalized for depression and anxiety. Other miners have also suffered from psychological troubles, including nightmares, sleep disturbances, and difficulty readjusting to family life. Some are taking medications, and nearly a third have suffered from posttraumatic stress disorder (Chapter 12) (Barrionuevo, 2011, October 12; CBS News, 2011, February 11). Despite these stark aftereffects, the rescue of these 33 men gives us many reasons to be hopeful.
Positive Psychology
Let’s end this chapter on a “positive” note, a positive psychology note. As mentioned earlier, positive psychology is a relatively new approach to psychology that focuses on the positive aspects of human nature, and is one of the many recurring themes presented throughout this text (TABLE 1.5). It refers to the study of human strengths and virtues—happiness, creativity, love, and all that is positive (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). Historically, psychologists have tended to focus on the abnormal and maladaptive patterns of human behavior. Positive psychology does not deny the existence of these darker elements; it just directs the spotlight elsewhere, illuminating what is best about human nature. This has much in common with the humanistic perspective you learned about earlier. In fact, positive psychologists often refer to the early work of the humanists as setting the stage for the current field of positive psychology, including the topics they now study (Robbins, 2008).
| Theme | Definition | What to look for |
| Nature and Nurture | The relative weight of heredity and environment in relation to behaviors, personality characteristics, etc. | Adaptation, heredity, environment, genes, instincts, reflexes, upbringing, peers, parents |
| Culture | The relative importance of cultural influences on behaviors, personality characteristics, and so on | Diversity, ethnicity, ethnic groups, cultural context, cross-cultural factors, ethnocentrism |
| Gender | The relative importance of one’s gender as it relates to behaviors, personality characteristics, and so on | Gender bias, gender differences, social roles, masculinity, femininity, gender roles |
| Positive Psychology | The focus on positive aspects of human beings, as opposed to the more traditional focus on abnormality and maladaptive behavior | Strengths, optimal behavior, happiness, well-being, achievement, self-confidence, human potential |
| Throughout this textbook, you will come across four important themes: nature and nurture, culture, gender, and positive psychology. | ||
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There is a lot to be said for this approach to psychology and to life in general. Evidence suggests that people who have a positive outlook tend to flourish and have better mental health than their less optimistic peers (Catalino & Fredrickson, 2011).
As you reflect on the Chilean miner story, contemplate the positive aspects of the people involved—the teamwork, selflessness, and love the miners showed for each other; the rescue workers who worked around the clock to save the men from their underground nightmare; the wives, mothers, fathers, siblings, cousins, and friends who dropped everything and moved to the Atacama Desert to await the return of their loved ones; and the strangers all over the world who sat crying as Florencio Ávalos became the first man to emerge from the darkness. It is tragic that many of the miners now face a new set of psychological challenges, but as you will learn in this book, humans have an amazing way of overcoming adversity. Do not underestimate the positive potential of humanity.
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show what you know
Question 1.1
1. ________ is the process through which research participants acknowledge their understanding of their role in a study.
- Informed consent
- Research ethics
- Debriefing
- Positive psychology
Question 1.2
2. Following a study involving a double-blind procedure with a treatment and a placebo, a researcher met with each participant individually to discuss important information about the study. This is known as:
- informed consent.
- debriefing.
- deception.
- naturalistic observation.
Question 1.3
3. In the study about pacifier use, newspapers and websites ran headlines that were somewhat misleading with regard to the findings. How would you write a headline for an article on the findings of this study so that it draws readers in but still represents the findings fairly?
CHECK YOUR ANSWERS IN APPENDIX C.