7.6 Summary of Concepts

Summary of Concepts

LO 1     Define cognition and explain how it is related to thinking.

Cognition is the mental activity associated with obtaining, converting, and using knowledge. Thinking is a more specific type of cognition, which involves coming to a decision, reaching a solution, forming a belief, or developing an attitude. Cognition is a broad term that describes mental activity, and thinking is a subset of cognition.

LO 2     Define concepts and identify how they are organized.

Concepts are the mental representations of categories of objects, situations, and ideas that belong together based on their central features or characteristics. Psychologists often use a three-level hierarchy to categorize objects. At the top of the hierarchy are superordinate concepts, the broadest category encompassing all the objects belonging to it. Below is the more specific midlevel or basic level of the hierarchy, the category used most often to identify objects. At the bottom of the hierarchy is the subordinate-level, the most specific category.

LO 3     Differentiate between formal concepts and natural concepts.

Formal concepts are created through rigid and logical rules, or features of a concept. Natural concepts, on the other hand, are acquired through everyday experience. Natural concepts don’t have the same types of rigid rules for identification that formal concepts do, and this makes them harder to outline. We organize our worlds with the help of prototypes, which are the ideal or most representative examples of particular natural concepts.

327

LO 4     Describe the biological processes associated with cognition.

The biology of cognition is evident in the brain, both on a micro and macro level. Changes at the level of the neuron, whether through rewiring, heightened excitability, or increased efficiency of synaptic transmission, make it possible to store, retrieve, and manipulate information. The plasticity of the brain enables dramatic recoveries from trauma.

LO 5     Explain how trial and error and algorithms can be used to solve problems.

Problem solving refers to the variety of approaches used to achieve goals. One approach to problem solving is trial and error, which involves finding a solution through a series of attempts. Algorithms provide a virtually guaranteed solution to a problem by providing a formula or set of rules. Unlike trial and error, algorithms ensure that you will reach a solution if you follow all the steps.

LO 6     Identify different types of heuristics used to solve problems.

Heuristics refer to a problem-solving approach that incorporates a rule of thumb or broad application of a strategy. One commonly used heuristic involves creating subgoals or subproblems. Another commonly used heuristic is means–ends analysis, which involves figuring out how to decrease the distance between a goal and current status. Using means–ends analysis, you can break a problem into subproblems and solve them independently.

LO 7     Define decision making and explain how heuristics can lead us astray.

Decision making generally refers to the cognitive process of choosing among various ways to reach a goal. Sometimes a decision is based on a single feature. With more complex decisions, we tend to consider a variety of features. Using the availability heuristic, we predict the probability of something happening in the future based on how easily we can recall a similar type of event from the past. If we can easily recall a similar type of event, then we judge that event as being more likely to occur. With the representativeness heuristic, we evaluate the degree to which the primary characteristics of an event, person, or situation are similar to our prototype of that type of person or situation.

LO 8     Define language and give examples of its basic elements.

Language can be defined as a system for using symbols to think and communicate. These symbols are words, gestures, or sounds, and there are specific rules for putting them together. Phonemes are the basic building blocks of spoken language. Morphemes consist of one or more phonemes and represent the fundamental units of meaning. The syntax of a language refers to the collection of rules guiding word choice and word order. Grammar refers to the rules associated with word and sentence structures and how these are formed from their components. Semantics refers to rules that are used to bring meaning to words and sentences. Pragmatics refers to the social rules for using language.

LO 9     Identify the linguistic relativity hypothesis and its relation to language and thought.

The linguistic relativity hypothesis proposes that language differences lead to disparities in thinking and perception. Most psychologists agree that although language might not determine thinking and perception, it certainly can influence it.

LO 10     Examine and distinguish among various theories of intelligence.

Charles Spearman speculated that intelligence consists of a general intelligence (or g factor), which refers to a singular underlying aptitude or intellectual ability. Howard Gardner suggested we have multiple intelligences, proposing eight different types of intelligences or “frames of mind”: linguistic (verbal), logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, intrapersonal, interpersonal, and naturalist. Robert Sternberg proposed three kinds of intelligences. His triarchic theory of intelligence suggests that humans have varying degrees of analytical, creative, and practical abilities.

LO 11     Describe how intelligence is measured and identify important characteristics of assessment.

Some tests of intelligence aim to measure aptitude, or a person’s potential for learning. Measures of achievement are designed to assess acquired knowledge (what a person has learned). Psychologists must ensure the accurate assessment of intelligence by determining validity, that is, the degree to which the test measures what it intends to measure. Another important characteristic is reliability, the ability of a test to provide consistent, reproducible results. A reliable test, given repeatedly, will result in similar scores.

328

LO 12     Define creativity and its associated characteristics.

Creativity is the ability to construct valuable results in innovative ways. Most psychologists agree on the basic characteristics of creativity, including originality, fluency, and flexibility. Because creativity is not evident in a singular or uniform manner, it is difficult to measure.

key terms

achievement

algorithm

aptitude

availability heuristic

cognition

concept

confirmation bias

convergent thinking

creativity

culture-fair intelligence test

decision making

divergent thinking

dyslexia

emotional intelligence

formal concept

framing effect

functional fixedness

general intelligence (g factor)

gifted

grammar

heritability

heuristics

insight

intelligence

intelligence quotient (IQ)

language

means–ends analysis

mental age (MA)

morpheme

natural concepts

normal curve

phonemes

pragmatics

problem solving

prototype

reliability

representativeness heuristic

semantics

standardization

syntax

thinking

trial and error

triarchic theory of intelligence

validity

TEST PREP: are you ready?

Question

T9DKYul/VXiGHZH3noJNaIQTxT3Ys8x6aiQB8l/kpKGEPRKhYPvNYBZgcWBsmC3l0jA5K4Y/sjOgIn7j9NVf7cY8izAUBWCe6Sl/VYzT8T0agzSDnUXCa1HXoBOcVYnLtdF71bGmT78L8+qIVu20C//vcG5K6c5Q3FZPToCuzHhNjVW41bBuCMzmg7CzRGz4Wi0kDL+vqTUhsC6LxaIyZNcJFaWKHx+ac+R1zP6+Ir2WryGiTDODaM6kOdhAVMoVlyKt08OogY6BeH3rQtx4nuIQB9koaghsYgp7mSimhZp5rglOjsqjM3F3uQPrKGx8v3cK6vja0Kbg+1epPNaTS29DGyZatO2BWwdJoa/jOUn2jQAbX/+VZIkCW3GNzVnWDmMB6leI9aQpFSythi1XqORjIBbxCbvRd0fAcCVJGuSk7IuRkeupKch0YGVpBASn

Question

3gSSTwel4PAhfMSDxsD+hlDbYK5JgAfPE9bGPDCPHHqPa7wx2bP4OeCG+bcWD/n/qbc4whvx7RuLBde92F5ZcqV1k3liD0q8GVA7rwu/hjgAebcpVTp/3J2jpO6PADpj3uX+qnBIuMKRXN8vYap4BolJRY65Sc4AaB6Q/Hh57zqCKYEx+I2Zoe1JCqTyDG4IGUZwTW0h2aduOXyrSKAqsOywfbaCSQMRwquHLvw7iLGzoihbtZUx6VNXkMp76aG3rfanNCSmUGWhf2q0U24+ErkLQmjVv3KAu0N/gPEPddi/0tViMpfV6ij4oFEtgoQ1fqezddmGlcGGhe57j12HucrtSOsOJNM7

Question

x0mNjTE1F2/IwpdhFb1c61oN6Jd2+rCj/zk2xq8SsbkXAsDOEaYmI9IZyC+rClTWLxrHBYhFZ6Mru5fSWXXG04gmLA4xcHYGvt724Ns80I3WlS20Gut/+BjgAD5VK4OizSsDkEBxObqURhqae3s5eu3xQTJWZevsidW/NIW0UdXUp/UQRm2gVXrpKZ9UgFe+Q7G3K2e9bvkKpAhBLIyBff8uaBtK0ebdofb4/Rfb8/yowCAd4MOC6rdYKtR4UdHp9lQrJekzemLm35rjTONijiNLGOvmroqK4zGXErAuLiy36eHFqxDolcdhM0C4EYmNexsXddTnQF8o1XbBgcHeqcyODwBIfD7aRw1RzPikVv9lDq2Ycxe/v3Iy6nvKCWXRAQdVy6yZ4oReFOVX2Fl9vazaGMBDRS1f

Question

HTgOhO4syKj53Vqt/j4fIj4iGtQQJrnki/rbzEG/j7Ph+Cs86AC92x5x9pfWQZhxXkPTIrVmVAWtB9d+6GcUHx7UmEh6pWPIMk9FgOZ7drNaH/VoBat8b60NUuVT5BB9xG47YcLnlr8+x6MGuAlxcf9AgbBLGqivpYbELWipLMsiXnnH9RYE9cLOiQAcXBkBXSm3niAL3eCMuTptIG2UtAyozP+JzjNOF6zEvDIfSEqC5g8hH/1r72gqLCVlUCSJXAS58SaUs1mxkJCokkg8MAO1A5zTgOA+muKBy0klSNxA+T41AHVnFwu3iiV39kSFy4AE9cQ8OpkaHiVrAu9SVcEmBoOuHv+bMohe/hbkBycWHsd3+mJI8JldayIGMf4+0dxVeYxWPfMW+SxFqajHsMvCztVO2W84gj0hY6NbIt4AFNjK

Question

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

Question

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

Question

S2GOITVWZdHSZsc6dfOwE+aJ4Z/KwRUmbxwjjQrELHhAsSHwx/ZdA4ok4kAxVrNYayPwF8R57Y/Y6ij3qvyeJMINmhxlF5FRdy2IpKpj15XN8gOCS6dsvyZSCTLI8vIVNOPqpw00rzvHtRvD2ITkfMHxdldwsVrbKCM8GuzEE/8iOxZwPoQCoy52P8rbUTQrwzweL3u/ESnMZvr43LlevmkkN354mm165pfyikX7r2L8wBov2bZlIFbcsFZoShbDOduANFi7P6wv5eB32cOVZZsQ3kMJyxp6NFW/JQ7wR8/Pbz9WqFRYOk08D/WUWyD6Vsu10EOGyCfsZiTkj8Nr2k0atJxLAsl0cAwrhtQOleiJTY+5M0Wf0Q0et7uaMOCkDy5cgArIlQDyKYdRO4TG0w==

329

Question

yWfAKHfdsVaeLdU3kLYMU7BbsSdYNAbQCbIYa6bzWLlSLK7egOjelhr31BiNe2+M76yaPIHzshyNny+rRXBs9vFUCDW7PFmaxXsJqAAk5sRjuY5+7JpfDC+2gy3sB+uvfdVS6Vpeoox4Jyfeu+MDVLT5EkhpMn9q5SMNWkXbNYV4Vdhi26PMIXep+BH1VWtsFaCukqEJePmlTFVhKKhj3j//MHkvLs9tV8ELnPp96DEGpSvO51YDtNAYB+OMJ1wg06l7nKTt4rMt5jSPAafHZEb38tPqrLp5SXqiNguJT+Brmod/+ZMKcCQYltSS9eNgAR0QWUr3kddnxd3oxhhxnpq7jSSjOywnZBJoIqhKFuruQXhJXa/drhUjRWUtOvml0KZkNb3yPeDhVJ674/MQsUVuDB67O91aH8YGQw8E+zcpJ0et

Question

B+noQZpfPru+Z1JLQd4mFIFdsU+GFwdaw1uZixzzHAb2YG2vbWz5d2Mp6VL6WQ52/RSVjDP3o9nKfMmwf6DAedUaqdc9y3IeViG/5TAYfm0wdpxLVD8uKO/HSo3Ue7XfJ7DzC7fR3GVn/B/J7me7yIj9cxlmDQgUDYP7UGmWC3Ymlhq1CUrkkBqEUtRK5G3AMxV7at4ZDzxZoDPwDXh4Jy5g7mBm+ju92bxMPpoetEfgznWpVkLDRcCkjp7beweIpeCUovMYcGjK4D3Nm/jhHcf6PiMQ2j+04P28wB4AmbvTZyULNjopLEYT+FRBp+AWRTsd6xtBwsTT20Ph6EGkpoVZDNqYF1j8g4y1cmYrjxY0bt1sNuoBScKBP63WwW6YgqXfsUFIpWWEBE6HJXrV+Nbud3n7SFeFIqK2uQyX+zKHYE0OMp7zGg==

Question

tKDFbxPOpkXHsH8S45Mb8riG3fxKzKphtj8CNbMArdzhPnWOHpOoag+kewxcZezYpkEwY3H/PIGs3iJMHK3F25ulUJR/Y/m46uX4TSLrfxq2lKXXSIrvk10ztb1PzixYZ0FnG5Dk1xUu0Wv8uH0p0h4RAFSmcxV8rRcrzCB6NcPWZvNM6OnBvejlrpLGwenW5LZJOUy/yoz00m+2e1FB3V7+gqWcFMHwBTqtHDFKBvV+GQwFJz6vq1n0Kl+atn5CTy1Q9pLaSdlfgUJnEdgWxZqKx6EhLVD8KpDapAlEHDfRCbwbkPM6hqXLLJKEEXtJqSkGdmoO1i+cMkaVyLnMDTyDdVcon0Xkwgg44LaMwEXtfnWS6vAebQx2E0vch6R+RShwYyX/i2vGegOFQ9hmVfETO54eb7E87pxmFLLMdwTzHOhxAKN6w1ib8lQ=

Question

qxeZvx0elAjuyX1tJZMEPReI/tIQi8mnyp8Bejlxzi9WyWiBpvTemM7yewSVUnlgbaxDk+C6H8jsAl04vhIYoZhIwz35b9Jcuonjud77IZwGZy1j90rYzI7ZF+M6RbRUoxjtjdbinrYC6iHrnqkdRxf2BqsybQZ4sO3kArPM3soWNB4Z8H1etECMEOu2KvsvpAAZNnzOGKTZIAOkvWTuYtjfkK4tAMw/ap/ENhASJfslnFl0Kr2R4kVIeA0M8zSnbxGkFaTlpRouw+NxDG0TzkEPOYcqtiGYokFVA96jUjDkdtJCyFgHnY5kdA95T0zzagoTnX7F862IAhXWFNz9bFdHA+U=

Question

SiiND3N+C/ctIYjiaTxqJ/f/+frY464+29TFFaVSFE+IJW4Odp3xlh59b1xkvhEhziUutEeLKaLXPCmz+czpr9tDtgQT79cxtWDtxCLMv24NaA4yiv8J8PGUG5TzodkMmkJ9u0F0o1RzcwgyJZvQxt3YibCS9L3WlH+Kpdk9sv1IYsIJZX2owI6OGZxtoX/R2fzVmsv2cxQsySdY3pi7gK6Dw7Kcfmps7OB0e5nj7kDHXqXsdKLviMWHqnL9z/eIm6T+VYl6XM5QQzMH+tFTaVB5K7sADsiY2K9VnLoHLtu7cS5xIIFj1d5SLQDgnxguaG0Q2QeCpHF9CLobECDCxeqx59JLF1bHkB46QlMbXr8pupgPtQ3nOdSmba9WKS50j5ajm0mpV76Bh67bjInee//Axo6Y+O4WiPylVQmXJ9h8dUlopQqtG/mUM3j9l7nU

Question

OgRzP23DZqxLisFEp0mu4nOmC7Zwwca4V757BdOuXOfBxaOtbadQMWOMcjDWMZgLPvEFzN9EpmCSOy8Bhi2V9bakEh13mr8EJA6DuRgE1YqPwhsWrSxez5sw2cq4D6kNVwlErRcAJdDk0Z08s0TZHX9SlhQCqziGtQMhRiGC9vWZeJkktmWm1/LxgNKGO3qYBvf/P7iZijUdtihkenKgXzNDqabj5YPPhleRdK20rchxbFWtlecabd0P17Kqc34KkSZKXQsLQqAWYO6zz6aYhjHabT+XsAq+

Question

ujNFaDRHFuYk8MeP3Bqn+2osXpGJsYL1tep0qiLPZ5h5hAZ5z0xPBgcHohY0rJ5IAr9YS3v7EfCEgLiYMipiPmJI22l2mDolcjvsoRaVdLr9on94mrvrwdQpogiOPMeh0ijyM8TwkYBg+9oQMSMcpqUTXND1X1mxjSYaGWC+YB8QxWo20hObrIjhYW7gK3D4txRXsbfZqXeg+hduU1ZqtZFN2KOGb9H9k1P7AlMTIXb+ucCiWYUlukmGT02XqBCl9ScGjVBfUbbswFbRDFqCQ0h+repCkaWl530kZlOzWpANjsklWaNrhXpssOGM6ryITE5Dc8xWjyiez3w3CPG/QCwPS+BsPW9Mg2k0yKYsW1cjyA/PNrekAQDFZD3Y7n0o69fJQ5blyYzgSK2waDNeUTOXf3zffmwBOyUuZJD4nBf7YKXRjYb3gC5U3E/rP4748/SPkFvnikFNU1sM

Question

65zPWLGwi1gq13uPqafvATdK194+Txmm5LnUdS0hdcG7NtTV6G1bvJHa6xrPu+rvOpGzOEaK9nXV7C+0iKbFJmFZgbVNF5VXkcnd1D1LJlV4qJXO6Phow2m3jV8SgOXkWwOwd48ZHFVl7gZZkKYIuBskLqHmm+KVYPpsfq6u1tzU1nM6GICN4zupVl4S/TgtjkmGzdpRA7lvvozzBh0K8UBDvlvvJg5NR1c4Z1IdPcYZQl8fgXf4Uc2slMAth+pYv4u3OMYTQACR3SL2KEhfHIPeStRxdl4AxLdGksIKw3/YOsbgu2yx3g3qa6w8qyOX+Fq8nuPnuvPcqL6yDO4IF/kOI9oXb2wUg9wDmBTAciNNlupRVkSCwabNzt4i4SbMJNg+qVxyVwb095bjTHJYjNTlHlwdpAifS22ugJ8iM1s=

Question

8De54RMamQIdsIF+4UJsJzJoSDvrlM2cRDDKmHFjRYKskyK7DTpWlvki6YCO02RpW9/jxF+ZNHcPZFP1dH08ITytFABW1RrXl8uWAEbAs6JC3l27oU53p0dk8q+IZK58LfR8bmvNmvZb8gm4EqcxWbmJhBJr5uy1kV+LGmTRuKkmUx2cNcOC6Q==

Question

b0qSsQwORzPA5f6FqxpE5zCyELTgeESBsJt5ieW/sqporaJxqZgWEkXRFNkQNvV+a8BcZHisw+1mdE19LrsMGBKYqEeVCiJsISmynMZZ8WFU3bK+zjwtBb2AriLUt8vF

Question

Y2aQU67lJDaxIGBRFZxt5+SXxfonYAWYR8aUJtVBeczR142w77SydrbboW7fj9wyj0HRQnz3PYK3nRmfqdsI/hjhagpTU3udlF2fvMa0n83o2UKVbVeqARtvGjX8JaVhLFUYZVYMJkK/Q2MCrm6OcP3XlOP6fEGhs1bcAZYCGES4U24sk8tMsOP3eePey1Xb3e7AY8SvpeFbQDi2IwBjb0RCm6cFF2rgo1BorK3Up3xWW0AVwPwU4uZLL33SymlUvJBBCseHDWXEAhaCqTHVp3H2keMMeTTislkeKXFg5L41t7Wu71JcMuj1bnngswXW8wc1KniFjs71MmDS7lBlELlhcH/1kjcD4FmDonvOQHs0kmA7Jn7LsZLxG02xI5dUPtQiB+pJRuqoT1/em66WaP6N4i9yPsaOlrcabc3nIvOQE18Cy0Cp/zSDnmMLAcmhLDvDpOl9Wys=

Question

xdQO7dV2YDKZf8PwKaNcE260wJv9cs7LD5TGwKBbXmVxJK0GIJeIoUGZX5Km4xSzY3DSfWUK6NGJ7RhMfJrRF1h/EfD4WTcaTs3XoCVwSFZ9feJ0FrbAbXGrfOcGtndX5PAk51Zt0FaTQL9c8z2fQ+0+9iIYfOvJ3BDrTXTkGeKvEcLpN3XgIzMeF9sEwj6CVyAhqK2BUA8FQY3nD7+QoAIwW4Afh07ibeKS/g2mIjBXexbY8uPLR9sPYtZCBAcGe0ZFwYZZan32xaLGw3XoeGL3BbeGz2LqPfVLnvtS70o=

Question

6iHbX1PlZJ2qaYli2WnCpeL+zZbyazlx6S+yOBE35jk12LUW/PBssV7mjIANEXasuHfOO/Bxk3V10G+VuN0zwWhJjdjhvZQeefL95yqaSI+hKE5epQ8sW8WQwCpp0loEOk7y9XFgm9NvHb/1hgcUJ2qIys/23zTV7NeBWg==

CHECK YOUR ANSWERS IN APPENDIX C.

Get personalized practice by logging into LaunchPad at http://www.worthpublishers.com/launchpad/sciam1e
to take the LearningCurve adaptive quizzes for Chapter 7.