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LO 1 Define stress and stressors. (p. 442)

Stress is the response to perceived threats or challenges resulting from stimuli or events that cause strain, analogous to an airplane wing bending in response to an applied load. For humans, these stimuli, or stressors, can cause physiological, psychological, and emotional reactions. We must be careful not to confuse how we react to stressors and the stressors themselves; stress is the response, stressors are the cause. Stress primarily occurs in reaction to a perceived threat.

LO 2 Describe the Social Readjustment Rating Scale in relation to life events and illness. (p. 445)

Holmes and Rahe developed the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) to measure the impact of life events. The score is based on the severity of events and their frequency of occurrence. Researchers use this to examine relationships between life events and health problems. Although correlations do exist, they are not necessarily indicative of cause and effect.

LO 3 Summarize how poverty, adjusting to a new culture, and daily hassles affect health. (p. 448)

People living in poverty, moving to a new culture, and dealing with everyday hassles are faced with a number of stressors that increase the likelihood of illness. Unlike major life changes and catastrophes, we are exposed to these stressors on a more constant basis. Moving to a new country is a major life change that can result in acculturative stress; however, integrating the old and new cultures and developing social support helps combat the effects. With all the stressors in our lives, we can be grateful for the positive experiences, or uplifts, that can serve to balance them.

LO 4 Identify the brain and body changes that characterize the fight-or-flight response. (p. 452)

When faced with a threatening situation, portions of the brain, including the hypothalamus, activate the sympathetic nervous system, which then leads to the secretion of catecholamines, such as epinephrine and norepinephrine. These hormones cause heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, and blood flow to the muscles to increase. At the same time, the digestive system slows down and the pupils dilate. These physiological responses prepare us for an emergency by efficiently managing the body’s resources.

LO 5 Outline the general adaptation syndrome (GAS). (p. 452)

The human body responds in a predictable way to stressors. The general adaptation syndrome suggests that the body passes through three stages. The first is the alarm stage, or initial response to a threatening situation. This stage includes an increase in arousal, during which the body prepares to deal with a threat. Next is the resistance stage, during which the body maintains a high level of arousal (although not as high as that of the alarm stage), as it deals with a threatening situation; at this point there is a decreased response to new stressors. During the resistance stage, some people start to show signs of diseases of adaptation. Finally there is the exhaustion stage; during this phase, the body’s resources become depleted, resulting in vulnerability to illnesses, physical exhaustion, and even death.

LO 6 Describe the function of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) system. (p. 452)

Overseeing the sympathetic nervous system’s activity is the HPA system. When a stressful situation arises, the hypothalamus initiates a cascade of responses by alerting the pituitary gland, which then sends signals to the adrenal cortex. In turn, the cortex orders the secretion of corticosteroids (for example, cortisol). These hormones summon the immune system to fight off a threat and reduce the amount of energy used on nonessential activities. When faced with a stressor, the body responds in the same way it would to a pathogen—by mobilizing a defense response.

LO 7 Explain how stressors relate to health problems. (p. 454)

When the body is continually mobilizing its resources for fight or flight, the immune system becomes taxed, and the work of the lymphocytes is compromised. During times of stress, people tend to sleep poorly and eat erratically, and may increase their drug and alcohol use, along with other poor behavioral choices. These tendencies can lead to health problems. In particular, stressors have been linked to ulcers, cancer, and cardiovascular disease.

LO 8 List some consequences of prolonged exposure to the stress hormone cortisol. (p. 458)

Cortisol steps up immunity and prepares the body to confront a threat. But when cortisol levels remain high for prolonged periods (which is the case with chronic stressors and threatening situations), immune system functioning may decrease. Elevated cortisol has been associated with premature birth and low birth weight in infants. For workers who have to make on-the-spot safety decisions, high cortisol levels can decrease working memory. The field of psychoneuroimmunology explores the complex interplay of psychological, neurological, and immunological factors involved in stress.

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LO 9 Identify different types of conflicts. (p. 460)

Conflict can be defined as the discomfort felt when making tough choices. Often two choices presented are both attractive (approach–approach conflict), at times one choice has both favorable and unfavorable characteristics (approach–avoidance conflict), and other times two alternatives are both unattractive (avoidance–avoidance conflict). Even more challenging are conflicts that occur when someone must decide between two choices, each possessing attractive and unattractive qualities (double approach–avoidance conflict), or those that occur when faced with a decision that has more than two possible choices (multiple approach–avoidance conflicts).

LO 10 Illustrate how appraisal influences coping. (p. 461)

Coping refers to the cognitive, behavioral, and emotional abilities used to manage something that is perceived as difficult or challenging. We must decide whether an event is irrelevant, positive, challenging, or harmful (primary appraisal) and how we will respond (secondary appraisal). If we determine that we have the ability to cope, then the impact of stress will remain low. We can choose to deal directly with a problem (problem-focused coping), or address the emotions surrounding the problem (emotion-focused coping).

LO 11 Describe Type A and Type B personalities and explain how they relate to stress. (p. 462)

Personality appears to have a profound effect on coping style and predispositions to stress-related illnesses. People with Type A personalities are competitive, aggressive, and impatient and twice as likely to develop cardiovascular disease as people with Type B personalities, who are more relaxed, patient, and nonaggressive. The presence of Type D personality may be a better predictor of how patients fare when they already have heart disease, and it is characterized by emotions such as worry, tension, bad moods, and social inhibition. People who exhibit a personality characteristic referred to as hardiness seem to be more resilient, optimistic, and better able to handle a great deal of stress.

LO 12 Discuss several tools for reducing stress and maintaining health. (p. 467)

Stress management incorporates tools to lower the impact of possible stressors. Exercise, meditation, progressive muscle relaxation, biofeedback, and social support all have positive physical and psychological effects. Caring for and giving to others are also effective ways to reduce the impact of stress.