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LO 1 Define learning. (p. 174)

Learning is a relatively enduring change in behavior or thinking that results from experiences. Organisms as simple as fish and as complex as humans have the ability to learn. Learning is about creating associations. Sometimes we associate two different stimuli (classical conditioning). Other times we make connections between our behaviors and their consequences (operant conditioning). We can also learn by watching and imitating others (observational learning), creating a link between our behavior and the behavior of others.

LO 2 Explain what Pavlov’s studies teach us about classical conditioning. (p. 176)

The dogs in Pavlov’s studies learned to associate various stimuli with the anticipation of food, which resulted in them salivating when the stimuli were introduced. He discovered how such associations are learned, and referred to this process as conditioning. Classical conditioning is the process in which two stimuli become associated; once this association has been established, an originally neutral stimulus is conditioned to elicit an involuntary response.

LO 3 Identify the differences between the US, UR, CS, and CR. (p. 178)

In classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus is something in the environment that does not normally cause a relevant automatic or reflexive response. This neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus (US) that triggers an unconditioned response (UR). The neutral stimulus thus becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) that the organism has learned to associate with the US. This CS elicits a conditioned response (CR). The initial pairing of a neutral stimulus with a US is called acquisition.

LO 4 Recognize and give examples of stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination. (p. 179)

Once an association is forged between a CS and a CR, the learner often responds to similar stimuli as if they are the original CS. This is called stimulus generalization. For example, someone who has been bitten by a small dog and reacts with fear to all dogs, big and small, demonstrates stimulus generalization. Stimulus discrimination is the ability to differentiate between a CS and other stimuli sufficiently different from it. Someone who was bitten by a small dog may be afraid of small dogs, but not large dogs, thus demonstrating stimulus discrimination.

LO 5 Summarize how classical conditioning is dependent on the biology of the organism. (p. 182)

Animals and people show biological preparedness, meaning they are predisposed to learn associations that have adaptive value. For example, a conditioned taste aversion is a form of classical conditioning that occurs when an organism learns to associate the taste of a particular food or drink with illness. Avoiding foods that induce sickness increases the odds the organism will survive and reproduce, passing its genes along to the next generation.

LO 6 Describe the Little Albert study and explain how fear can be learned. (p. 183)

The case study of Little Albert illustrates the conditioned emotional response, an emotional reaction (fear in Little Albert’s case) acquired via classical conditioning. When Little Albert heard a loud bang, this was a US that elicited a fear response (the UR). Through conditioning, the sight of a rat became paired with the loud noise and went from being a neutral stimulus to a CS. Little Albert’s fear of the rat became a CR.

LO 7 Describe Thorndike’s law of effect. (p. 187)

Thorndike’s law of effect was important in the development of operant conditioning, a type of learning in which people or animals come to associate their voluntary actions with consequences. The law of effect states that if a behavior is followed by a pleasurable outcome, that behavior is more likely to reoccur.

LO 8 Explain shaping and the method of successive approximations. (p. 188)

Building on Thorndike’s law of effect and Watson’s behaviorism, Skinner used reinforcers to guide behavior to the acquisition of a desired complex behavior, a process called shaping. Successive approximations is a method of shaping that uses reinforcers to condition a series of small steps that gradually approach a target behavior. Animal behavior can be shaped using successive approximations, but instinct can interfere with the process. This instinctive drift is the tendency for animals to revert to instinctual behaviors after a behavior pattern has been learned.

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LO 9 Identify the differences between positive and negative reinforcement. (p. 192)

Positive reinforcement refers to the process of applying reinforcers that increase future occurrences of a targeted behavior. The fish treats that Thorndike gave his cats are examples of positive reinforcers (they increased the likelihood of the cats opening the latch). Behaviors can also increase in response to negative reinforcement through the process of taking away (or removing) something unpleasant. Putting on a seat belt in a car to stop an annoying beep is an example of negative reinforcement (it increases the likelihood of wearing a seat belt). Both positive and negative reinforcement increase desired behaviors.

LO 10 Distinguish between primary and secondary reinforcers. (p. 193)

There are two major categories of reinforcers. Primary reinforcers satisfy biological needs. Food, water, and physical contact are considered primary reinforcers. Secondary reinforcers do not satisfy biological needs, but often derive their power from their connection with primary reinforcers. Money is an example of a secondary reinforcer; we know from experience that it gives us access to primary reinforcers, such as food, a safe place to live, and perhaps even the ability to attract desirable mates.

LO 11 Describe continuous reinforcement and partial reinforcement. (p. 194)

Reinforcers can be delivered on a constant basis (continuous reinforcement) or intermittently (partial reinforcement). Continuous reinforcement is generally more effective for establishing a behavior, whereas learning through partial reinforcement is more resistant to extinction (the partial reinforcement effect) and useful for maintaining behavior.

LO 12 Name the schedules of reinforcement and give examples of each. (p. 196)

In a fixed-ratio schedule, reinforcement follows a predetermined number of desired responses or behaviors. In a variable-ratio schedule, the number of desired responses or behaviors that must occur before a reinforcer is given changes across trials and is based on an average number of responses to be reinforced. In a fixed-interval schedule, the reinforcer comes after a preestablished interval of time goes by; the response or behavior is only reinforced after the given interval passes. In a variable-interval schedule, the reinforcement comes after an interval of time passes, but the length of the interval changes from trial to trial. The lengths of these intervals are within a predetermined range based on a desired average interval length.

LO 13 Explain how punishment differs from negative reinforcement. (p. 200)

In contrast to reinforcement, which makes a behavior more likely to recur, the goal of punishment is to decrease a behavior. Negative reinforcement differs from punishment because it strengthens a behavior that it follows by removing something aversive or disagreeable. Punishment decreases a behavior by instilling an association between a behavior and some unwanted consequence (for example, between stealing and going to jail, or between misbehaving and a spanking).

LO 14 Summarize what Bandura’s classic Bobo doll study teaches us about learning. (p. 204)

Observational learning can occur when we watch a model demonstrate a behavior. Albert Bandura’s classic Bobo doll experiment showed that children readily imitate aggression when they see it modeled by adults. Studies suggest that children and adults may be inclined to mimic aggressive behaviors seen in TV shows, movies, video games, and on the Internet. Observation of prosocial behaviors, on the other hand, can encourage kindness, generosity, and forms of behavior that benefit others.

LO 15 Describe latent learning and explain how cognition is involved in learning. (p. 207)

Learning can occur without reinforcement. Edward Tolman showed that rats could learn to navigate mazes even when given no rewards. Their learning only became apparent when it was needed (latent learning). The rats were learning without reinforcement, just for the sake of learning. This cognitive approach reminds us that measurable behaviors and cognitive processes are necessary and complementary elements in the study of learning.