When you do your best to meet an audience’s expectations about how a text should work, your writing is more likely to have the desired effect. In practice, figuring out what audiences want, need, or expect can be difficult—especially when you are writing in public spaces online and your audiences can be composed of anyone, anywhere. If you do know something about your readers’ expectations, use what you know to present your work effectively. If you know little about your potential audiences, however, err on the side of caution and carefully examine your assumptions about your readers.

Meeting expectations about your authority as a writer

In the United States, students are frequently asked to establish authority in their writing—by drawing on certain kinds of personal experience, by reporting on research they or others have conducted, or by taking a position for which they can offer strong evidence and support. But this expectation about writerly authority is by no means universal. Indeed, some cultures view student writers as novices whose job is to reflect what they learn from their teachers—those who hold the most important knowledge, wisdom, and, hence, authority. One Japanese student, for example, said he was taught that it’s rude to challenge a teacher: “Are you ever so smart that you should challenge the wisdom of the ages?”

As this student’s comment reveals, a writer’s tone also depends on his or her relationship with listeners and readers. In this student’s case, the valued relationship is one of respect and deference, of what one Indonesian student called “good modesty.” As a world writer, you need to remember that those you’re addressing may hold a wide range of attitudes about authority.

Meeting expectations about persuasive evidence

How do you decide what evidence will best support your ideas? The answer depends, in large part, on the audience you want to persuade. American academics generally give great weight to factual evidence.

Differing concepts of what counts as evidence can lead to arguments that go nowhere. Consider, for example, how rare it is for a believer in creationism to be persuaded by what the theory of evolution presents as evidence—or how rare for a supporter of evolutionary theory to be convinced by what creationists present as evidence. A person who regards biblical authority as the supreme evidence in any argument may never see eye to eye with a person who views religion and science as occupying separate spheres, each of which offers its own kind of truth. Think carefully about how you use evidence in writing, and pay attention to what counts as evidence to members of other groups you are trying to persuade.

Meeting expectations about organization

As you make choices about how to organize your writing, remember that cultural influences are at work here as well: the patterns that you find pleasing are likely to be ones that are deeply embedded in your own culture. For example, the organizational pattern favored by U.S. engineers, highly explicit and leaving little or nothing unsaid or unexplained, is probably familiar to most U.S. students: introduction and thesis, necessary background, overview of the parts to follow, systematic presentation of evidence, consideration of other viewpoints, and conclusion. If a piece of writing follows this pattern, American readers ordinarily find it “well organized” or “coherent.”

In the United States, many audiences (especially those in the academic and business worlds) expect a writer to get to the point as directly as possible and to take on the major responsibility of articulating that point efficiently and unambiguously. But not all audiences have such expectations. For instance, a Chinese student with an excellent command of English found herself struggling in her American classes. Her writing, U.S. teachers said, was “vague,” with too much “beating around the bush.” As it turned out, her teachers in China had prized this kind of indirectness, expecting audiences to read between the lines. To be more explicit could send the message that readers aren’t capable of such intellectual work.

When writing for audiences who may not share your expectations, then, think about how you can organize material to get your message across effectively. There are no hard and fast rules to help you organize your writing for effectiveness across cultures, but here are a few options to consider:

Meeting expectations about style

As with beauty, good style is most definitely in the eye of the beholder—and thus is always affected by language, culture, and rhetorical tradition. In fact, what constitutes effective style varies broadly across cultures and depends on the rhetorical situation—purpose, audience, and so on (see Chapter 2). Even so, there is one important style question to consider when writing across cultures: what level of formality is most appropriate? In most writing to a general audience in the United States, a fairly informal style is often acceptable, even appreciated. Many cultures, however, tend to value a more formal approach. When in doubt, it may be wise to err on the side of formality in writing to people from other cultures, especially to elders or to those in authority.

Beyond formality, other stylistic preferences vary widely, and context matters. Long, complex sentences and ornate language may be exactly what some audiences are looking for. On Twitter, on the other hand, writers have to limit their messages to 140 characters—so using abbreviated words, symbols, and fragments is expected, even desirable, there.

World writers, then, should take very little about language for granted. To be an effective world writer, aim to recognize and respect stylistic differences as you move from community to community and to meet expectations whenever you can.