Many writers, especially writers of literary works, use figures of speech to describe people, places, or objects and to communicate ideas. Figurative language is language used in a nonliteral way; it makes sense imaginatively or creatively but not literally. Three common figures of speech — similes, metaphors, and personification — make comparisons. Writers often use another literary device, symbols, to suggest larger themes. In addition, some writers use irony to convey the incongruities of life. (For more on figures of speech, see Chapter 10 and Chapter 13.)

Similes and metaphors are comparisons between two unlike things that have at least one common trait. A simile uses the word like or as to make a comparison, whereas a metaphor states or implies that one thing is another thing. If you say, “My father’s mustache is a house painter’s brush,” your metaphor compares two dissimilar things — a mustache and a paintbrush — that share a common trait: straight bristles. If you say, “Martha’s hair looks like she just walked through a wind tunnel,” your simile creates a more vivid image of Martha’s hair than if you simply stated, “Martha’s hair is messy.” Here are some additional examples from literary works.

SIMILE

My soul has grown deep like the rivers.

Langston Hughes, “The Negro Speaks of Rivers”

METAPHOR

Time is but the stream I go a-fishing in.

Henry David Thoreau, Walden

When writers use personification, they attribute human characteristics to objects or ideas. A well-known example of personification is found in an Emily Dickinson poem in which the poet likens death and immortality to passengers in a carriage: “Because I could not stop for Death — / He kindly stopped for me — / The carriage held but just Ourselves — / and Immortality.” Like similes and metaphors, personification often creates a strong visual image.

A symbol suggests more than its literal meaning. The sun breaking through the clouds, for instance, might suggest hope; the color white often suggests innocence and purity. Because the writer does not directly state the abstract idea that a symbol represents, a symbol may suggest more than one meaning. A white handkerchief, for example, might symbolize retreat in one context but good manners in another. Some literary critics believe the white whale in Herman Melville’s novel Moby Dick symbolizes evil, whereas others see the whale as representing the forces of nature.

To recognize symbols in a literary work, look for objects that are given a particular or unusual emphasis. The object may be mentioned often, may be suggested in the title, or may appear at the beginning or end of the work. Also be on the lookout for familiar symbols, such as flowers, doves, and colors.

Irony is literary language or a literary style in which actions, events, or words are contrary to what readers expect. For example, a prizefighter cowering at the sight of a spider is ironic because you expect prizefighters to be brave, a fire station burning down is ironic because you expect that a firehouse would be protected against fires, and a student saying that she is glad she failed an important exam is ironic because you expect the student to be upset that she failed the exam.