Writing a Draft: Invention, Research, Planning, and Composing

The activities in this section will help you choose and research a subject as well as develop and organize an evaluative argument. Do the activities in any order that makes sense to you (and your instructor), and return to them as needed as you revise. Your writing in response to many of these activities can be used in a rough draft that you will be able to improve after receiving feedback from your classmates and instructor.

Choose a subject to evaluate.

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When choosing a subject for evaluation, keep in mind that it must be

You may already have a subject in mind. If you do, skip to Test Your Choice below. If you do not, the following topics, in addition to those in the "Consider possible topics" sections following the readings by Nussbaum, Gladwell, and Turkle, may suggest one you can write about effectively.

Subjects Related to School

Subjects Related to Your Community

Subjects Related to Work

TEST YOUR CHOICE

Choosing a Subject

After you have made a provisional choice, ask yourself the following questions:

  • Do I know enough about the subject, or can I learn enough in the time I have?

  • Do I already have a judgment (either tentative or certain) about this subject?

  • Do I know what criteria or standards my readers are likely to use for judging something of this kind? Would I use the same criteria?

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To try out your choice of a subject and ideas about criteria, get together with two or three other students:

Presenters. Take turns describing your subject.

Listeners. Briefly tell the presenter what criteria or standards of judgment you would use to evaluate a subject of this kind.

As you plan and draft your evaluation, you may need to reconsider your choice of subject (for example, if you discover your criteria for evaluating are different from those your readers would use). If you have serious doubts about your choice, discuss them with your instructor before starting over with a new subject.

Assess your subject and consider how to present it to your readers.

Once you have made a preliminary choice of a subject, consider how you can frame or reframe it so that readers will be open to your evaluation. To do this, consider first how you regard the subject and what your readers are likely to think. Use the following questions and sentence strategies as a jumping-off point. You can make the sentences you generate your own later, as you revise.

WAYS IN

WHAT DO I THINK?

List those qualities of your SUBJECT that you like and dislike, or list its strengths and weaknesses or advantages and disadvantages.

  • What makes X good/bad is _____ , _____ and _____.

  • Although X is stellar in _____ [ways], it falls short in _____ [other ways].

What GENRE or kind of subject is it?

  • X is a _____ [name genre or category of subject, such as romantic comedy or horror movie].

  • X is an innovative example of _____ [name category in which the subject belongs] that combines elements of _____ and _____.

  • X is rather unconventional for a _____ [name category in which your subject belongs].

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What CRITERIA or standards of judgment do you usually use to evaluate things of this kind?

  • I expect X to be _____ or _____.

  • I dislike it when X is _____.

How does your subject COMPARE to other examples of the genre?

  • Compared to Y, X has the best/worst _____ [name trait].

  • X is like Y in that both are/do/make _____, but X is more/less _____.

  • Whereas Y can be faulted/praised for _____, X _____.

WHAT DO MY READERS THINK?

Who are your READERS, and why will they be reading your review? Is the subject new or familiar to them?

  • My readers are _____ and are probably reading my review to learn about the subject/to decide whether to see it, play it, or buy it.

  • My readers will probably be familiar with the subject. They may be curious to know what I think because _____

How might DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS such as the readers’ age, gender, cultural background, or work experience affect their judgment of the subject?

  • Older/Younger readers are less/more likely to _____

  • People who work in_____ or who are familiar with_____ may be more/less critical, or apply different standards to a subject like this one.

What CRITERIA or standards of judgment do you expect your readers to use when evaluating subjects of this kind? What other EXAMPLES of the genre would they be familiar with?

  • I expect readers to share my criteria.

  • If they like/dislike Y, they are sure to like/dislike X.

  • Judging X on the basis of _____ is likely to surprise readers because they probably are more familiar with _____ and _____.

Formulate a working thesis stating your overall judgment.

You may already have a good idea about how you want to assert your thesis: stating whether your subject is good or bad, or better or worse than something else in the same genre or category. Remember that evaluations can be mixed — you can concede shortcomings in a generally favorable review or concede admirable qualities in a mostly negative assessment. If you feel comfortable drafting a working thesis statement now, do so. You may use the following sentence strategies as a jumping-off point — you can always revise them later — or use language of your own. (Alternatively, if you prefer to develop your argument before trying to formulate a thesis, skip this activity now and return to it later.)

As you develop your argument, you may want to rework your thesis to make it more compelling by sharpening the language and perhaps also by forecasting your reasons. You may also need to qualify your judgment with words like generally, may, or in part.

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WAYS IN

HOW CAN I ASSERT A TENTATIVE OVERALL JUDGMENT?

A good strategy is to begin by NAMING the subject and IDENTIFYING the kind of subject it is, and then using VALUE TERMS to state your judgment of the subject’s strengths and weaknesses:

  • X is a brilliant embodiment of _____ [genre/category], especially notable for its superb _____ and thorough _____.

  • Because I admire _____ [another artist’s other work], I expected X to be _____. But I was disappointed/surprised by _____.

  • X has many good qualities including _____ and _____; however, the pluses do not outweigh its one major drawback, namely that _____.

Develop the reasons and evidence supporting your judgment.

For more idea-generating strategies, see Chapter 11.

The following activities will help you find reasons and evidence to support your evaluation. Begin by writing down what you already know. You can do some focused research later to fill in the details.

WAYS IN

HOW CAN I COME UP WITH REASONS AND EVIDENCE TO SUPPORT MY JUDGMENT?

List the good and bad qualities of the subject. Begin by reviewing the CRITERIA and the VALUE TERMS you have already used to describe the good and bad qualities of the subject. These are the potential REASONS for your judgment. Try restating them using this basic sentence strategy, which is also illustrated by an example from student William Akana’s film review:

  • X is ____ [your overall judgment] because_____, _____, and _____.

Example:

Scott Pilgrim vs. the World can be appreciated and enjoyed by all audiences because of its inventive special effects, clever dialogue, and artistic cinematography and editing. (par. 2)

Write steadily for at least five minutes, developing your reasons. Ask yourself questions like these:

  • Why are the characteristics I’m pointing out for praise or criticism so important in judging my subject?

Example:

Akana singles out special effects, dialogue, cinematography and editing because of the particular kind of film Scott Pilgrim vs. the World is — “a hilarious slacker movie that also somehow reimagines romantic comedy” (par. 1).

  • How can I prove to readers that the value terms I’m using to evaluate these characteristics are fair and accurate?

Example:

Akana analyzes the film’s special effects and gives readers specific examples, including screen shots, to demonstrate that they are indeed “inventive.”

Make notes of the EVIDENCE you will use to support your judgment. Evidence you might use to support each reason may include the following:

  • Examples

  • Quotations from authorities

  • Textual evidence (quotations, paraphrases, or summaries)

  • Images

  • Statistics

  • Comparisons or contrasts

You may already have some evidence you could use. If you lack evidence for any of your reasons, make a Research To Do note for later.

Research your evaluation.

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Consult your Research To Do notes to determine what you need to find out. If you are evaluating a subject that others have written about, try searching for articles or books on your topic. Enter keywords or phrases related to the subject, genre, or category into the search box of

To learn more about searching a database or catalog, see Chapter 21.

Turn to databases and search engines for information on more recent items, like films and popular novels; use books, databases, and search engines to find information on classic topics. (Books are more likely to provide in-depth information, but articles in print or online are more likely to be current.)

Respond to a likely objection or alternative judgment.

For more on idea-generating strategies, see Chapter 11; for more on conducting research, see Chapter 21.

Start by identifying an objection or an alternative judgment you expect some readers to raise. To come up with likely objections or alternative judgments, you might try the following:

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Then figure out whether to concede or refute a likely objection or alternative judgment. You may be able simply to acknowledge an objection or alternative judgment. But if the criticism is serious, consider conceding the point and qualifying your judgment. You might also try to refute an objection or alternative judgment by arguing that the standards you are using are appropriate and important. Use the following strategies for generating ideas and sentences as a jumping-off point, and revise them later to make them your own.

WAYS IN

HOW CAN I RESPOND EFFECTIVELY TO MY READERS?

  1. Start by listing OBJECTIONS you expect readers to have as well as their preferred ALTERNATIVE JUDGMENTS. In an earlier Ways In activity, you considered your readers and the criteria they are likely to favor. If their criteria differ from yours, you may need to explain or defend your criteria.

  2. Analyze your list of objections and alternative judgments to determine which are likely to be most powerful for your readers.

  3. Draft REFUTATIONS and CONCESSION statements:

To Refute

  • Reviewer A claims that _____. But I agree with Reviewer B who argues that .

  • Some people claim that subject X is_____ because of _____, _____, and _____. Although one can see why they might make this argument, the evidence does not back it up because _____.

  • In contrast to popular opinion, a recent study of _____ showed that _____.

To Concede

  • Indeed, the more hard-core enthusiasts, like A, B, and C, may carp that _____ is not sufficiently _____.

  • The one justifiable criticism that could be made against X is _____.

  • As some critics have pointed out, X follows the tried-and-true formula of _____.

To Concede and Refute

Frequently, writers concede a point only to come back with a refutation. To make the CONCESSION-REFUTATION MOVE, follow concessions like those above with sentences that begin with a TRANSITION like but, however, yet, or nevertheless, and then explain why you believe that your interpretation or position is more powerful or compelling.

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  • As some critics have pointed out, X follows the tried-and-true formula of _____. Still, the director/writer/artist is using the formula effectively to _____.

For more on the concession-refutation move, see Chapter 6.

Research Note: You may want to return to this activity after conducting further research. (For example, when he researched published reviews of Scott Pilgrim, student William Akana found objections to his argument as well as alternative judgments he could quote and refute.)

Organize your draft to appeal to your readers.

Whether you have rough notes or a complete draft, making an outline of what you have written can help you organize the essay effectively for your audience. An evaluative essay contains as many as four basic parts:

  1. Presentation of the subject

  2. Judgment of the subject

  3. Presentation of reasons and support

  4. Consideration of readers’ objections and alternative judgments

These parts can be organized in various ways; two options follow:

If you are writing primarily for readers who disagree with your judgment, you could start by showing them what you think they have overlooked or misjudged about the subject. Then you could anticipate and refute their likely objections before presenting your own reasons.

  1. Presentation of the subject: Reframe subject in terms that support your judgment

  2. Thesis statement: State your judgment directly

  3. Refutation of alternative judgments

  4. First reason and support with refutation of objection

  5. Second reason and support

  6. Third reason and support (and so on)

  7. Conclusion: Reiterate why your judgment is preferable to the alternatives

If you expect some readers to disagree with your judgment even though they share your standards, you could begin by restating these standards and then demonstrate how the subject fails to meet them. Then you could present your reasons and support before responding to alternative judgments.

  1. Presentation of the issue: Reassert shared criteria

  2. Thesis statement: State judgment that subject fails to meet shared criteria

  3. First reason and support showing how subject falls short

  4. Second reason and support

  5. Third reason and support (and so on)

  6. Refutation of alternative judgment

  7. Conclusion: Reassert judgment based on shared criteria

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For more on outlining, see Chapter 11.

Never be a slave to an outline: As you draft, you may see ways to improve your original plan, and you should be ready to shift parts around or drop or add parts as needed. If you use the outlining function of your word processing program, changing your outline will be simple, and you may be able to write the essay simply by expanding that outline.

Consider document design.

Because evaluations depend heavily on excerpts from the subject, they frequently include quotations, paraphrases, or summaries of the subject. When the subject of evaluation is in a visual medium (as with films, television shows, works of art, and Web sites), writers may use movie stills, photographs, or screen shots as evidence to support their claims. Consider how William Akana used film stills from Scott Pilgrim vs. the World as evidence to support his claim that this film “can be appreciated and enjoyed by all audiences because of its inventive special effects” (par. 2).

Uses a film still to support his claim that the film offers inventive special effects (film still shows “gamertags”)

Scott Pilgrim vs the World shines bright with superb special effects that serve to reinforce the ideas, themes, and style of the film. Special effects are plentiful throughout the entire film, ranging from superimposed annotations echoing classic gaming features to artful backgrounds and action sequences modeled on colorful comic book pages. For example, each of the main characters is described for the first time with “gamertags,” short-timed boxes of information that include name, age, and rating (see fig. 1).

Connects text discussion to the illustration with a figure callout

Uses a caption to highlight what the illustration shows

image
Fig. 1. Screen shot showing gamertags
Image credit: © Universal/Everett Collection

Write the opening sentences.

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Review what you have already written to see if you have something that would work to launch your concept explanation, or try out some of these opening strategies:

Offer an anecdote or example:

As I leaned back in the movie theater seat, accompanied by my friends on a typical Saturday night, I knew I was in for something special. I was reassured; not only had my friends and I reached a unanimous vote to watch Scott Pilgrim vs. the World, but two of my friends had already seen the film and were eager to see it again. (Akana, par. 1)

For critics, sorting through television pilots is an act of triage. Last year, when Game of Thrones landed on my desk, I skimmed two episodes and made a quick call: we’d have to let this one go. (Nussbaum, par. 1)

Begin with a comparison your readers are likely to be familiar with:

Car and Driver conducted a comparison of three sports cars, the Lotus Evora, the Chevrolet Corvette Grand Sport, and the Porsche Cayman S. . . . (Gladwell, par. 1)

Offer a surprising or provocative statement:

We live in a technological universe in which we are always communicating. And yet we have sacrificed conversation for mere connection. (Turkle, par. 1)

But don’t agonize over the first sentences, because you are likely to discover the best way to begin only after you have written a rough draft.

Draft your evaluation.

By this point, you have done a lot of writing to

Now stitch that material together to create a draft. The next two parts of this Guide to Writing will help you evaluate and improve that draft.