Front Matter Introduction
About the Authors
Preface
New to this Edition
Teaching and Learning Tools
Media and Supplements
Acknowledgments
Section Introduction
Chapter Introduction
1.1 Living Systems Require a Limited Variety of Atoms and Molecules
1.2 There Are Four Major Classes of Biomolecules
1.3 The Central Dogma Describes the Basic Principles of Biological Information Transfer
1.4 Membranes Define the Cell and Carry Out Cellular Functions
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
PROBLEMS
Chapter Introduction
2.1 Thermal Motions Power Biological Interactions
2.2 Biochemical Interactions Take Place in an Aqueous Solution
2.3 Weak Interactions Are Important Biochemical Properties
2.4 Hydrophobic Molecules Cluster Together
2.5 pH Is an Important Parameter of Biochemical Systems
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
PROBLEMS
Section Introduction
Chapter Introduction
3.1 Proteins Are Built from a Repertoire of 20 Amino Acids
3.2 Amino Acids Contain a Wide Array of Functional Groups
3.3 Essential Amino Acids Must Be Obtained from the Diet
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
PROBLEMS
Chapter Introduction
4.1 Primary Structure: Amino Acids Are Linked by Peptide Bonds to Form Polypeptide Chains
4.2 Secondary Structure: Polypeptide Chains Can Fold into Regular Structures
4.3 Tertiary Structure: Water-Soluble Proteins Fold into Compact Structures
4.4 Quaternary Structure: Multiple Polypeptide Chains Can Assemble into a Single Protein
4.5 The Amino Acid Sequence of a Protein Determines Its Three-Dimensional Structure
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
PROBLEMS
Chapter Introduction
5.1 The Proteome Is the Functional Representation of the Genome
5.2 The Purification of a Protein Is the First Step in Understanding Its Function
5.3 Immunological Techniques Are Used to Purify and Characterize Proteins
5.4 Determination of Primary Structure Facilitates an Understanding of Protein Function
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
PROBLEMS
Section Introduction
Chapter Introduction
6.1 Enzymes Are Powerful and Highly Specific Catalysts
6.2 Many Enzymes Require Cofactors for Activity
6.3 Gibbs Free Energy Is a Useful Thermodynamic Function for Understanding Enzymes
6.4 Enzymes Facilitate the Formation of the Transition State
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
PROBLEMS
Chapter Introduction
7.1 Kinetics Is the Study of Reaction Rates
7.2 The Michaelis–Menten Model Describes the Kinetics of Many Enzymes
7.3 Allosteric Enzymes Are Catalysts and Information Sensors
7.4 Enzymes Can Be Studied One Molecule at a Time
SUMMARY
APPENDIX: Derivation of the Michaelis–Menten Equation
KEY TERMS
PROBLEMS
Chapter Introduction
8.1 A Few Basic Catalytic Strategies Are Used by Many Enzymes
8.2 Enzyme Activity Can Be Modulated by Temperature, pH, and Inhibitory Molecules
8.3 Chymotrypsin Illustrates Basic Principles of Catalysis and Inhibition
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
PROBLEMS
Chapter Introduction
9.1 Hemoglobin Displays Cooperative Behavior
9.2 Myoglobin and Hemoglobin Bind Oxygen in Heme Groups
9.3 Hemoglobin Binds Oxygen Cooperatively
9.4 An Allosteric Regulator Determines the Oxygen Affinity of Hemoglobin
9.5 Hydrogen Ions and Carbon Dioxide Promote the Release of Oxygen
9.6 Mutations in Genes Encoding Hemoglobin Subunits Can Result in Disease
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
PROBLEMS
Section Introduction
Chapter Introduction
10.1 Monosaccharides Are the Simplest Carbohydrates
10.2 Monosaccharides Are Linked to Form Complex Carbohydrates
10.3 Carbohydrates Are Attached to Proteins to Form Glycoproteins
10.4 Lectins Are Specific Carbohydrate-Binding Proteins
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
PROBLEMS
Chapter Introduction
11.1 Fatty Acids Are a Main Source of Fuel
11.2 Triacylglycerols Are the Storage Form of Fatty Acids
11.3 There Are Three Common Types of Membrane Lipids
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
PROBLEMS
Section Introduction
Chapter Introduction
12.1 Phospholipids and Glycolipids Form Bimolecular Sheets
12.2 Membrane Fluidity Is Controlled by Fatty Acid Composition and Cholesterol Content
12.3 Proteins Carry Out Most Membrane Processes
12.4 Lipids and Many Membrane Proteins Diffuse Laterally in the Membrane
12.5 A Major Role of Membrane Proteins Is to Function as Transporters
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
PROBLEMS
Chapter Introduction
13.1 Signal Transduction Depends on Molecular Circuits
13.2 Receptor Proteins Transmit Information into the Cell
13.3 Some Receptors Dimerize in Response to Ligand Binding and Recruit Tyrosine Kinases
13.4 Metabolism in Context: Insulin Signaling Regulates Metabolism
13.5 Calcium Ion Is a Ubiquitous Cytoplasmic Messenger
13.6 Defects in Signaling Pathways Can Lead to Diseases
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
PROBLEMS
Section Introduction
Chapter Introduction
14.1 Digestion Prepares Large Biomolecules for Use in Metabolism
14.2 Proteases Digest Proteins into Amino Acids and Peptides
14.3 Dietary Carbohydrates Are Digested by Alpha-Amylase
14.4 The Digestion of Lipids Is Complicated by Their Hydrophobicity
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
PROBLEMS
Chapter Introduction
15.1 Energy Is Required to Meet Three Fundamental Needs
15.2 Metabolism Is Composed of Many Interconnecting Reactions
15.3 ATP Is the Universal Currency of Free Energy
15.4 The Oxidation of Carbon Fuels Is an Important Source of Cellular Energy
15.5 Metabolic Pathways Contain Many Recurring Motifs
15.6 Metabolic Processes Are Regulated in Three Principal Ways
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
PROBLEMS
Section Introduction
Chapter Introduction
16.1 Glycolysis Is an Energy-Conversion Pathway
16.2 NAD+ Is Regenerated from the Metabolism of Pyruvate
16.3 Fructose and Galactose Are Converted into Glycolytic Intermediates
16.4 The Glycolytic Pathway Is Tightly Controlled
16.5 Metabolism in Context: Glycolysis Helps Pancreatic Beta Cells Sense Glucose
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
PROBLEMS
Chapter Introduction
17.1 Glucose Can Be Synthesized from Noncarbohydrate Precursors
17.2 Gluconeogenesis and Glycolysis Are Reciprocally Regulated
17.3 Metabolism in Context: Precursors Formed by Muscle Are Used by Other Organs
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
PROBLEMS
Section Introduction
Chapter Introduction
18.1 Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Forms Acetyl Coenzyme A from Pyruvate
18.2 The Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex Is Regulated by Two Mechanisms
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
PROBLEMS
Chapter Introduction
19.1 The Citric Acid Cycle Consists of Two Stages
19.2 Stage One Oxidizes Two Carbon Atoms to Gather Energy-Rich Electrons
19.3 Stage Two Regenerates Oxaloacetate and Harvests Energy-Rich Electrons
19.4 The Citric Acid Cycle Is Regulated
19.5 The Glyoxylate Cycle Enables Plants and Bacteria to Convert Fats into Carbohydrates
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
PROBLEMS
Section Introduction
Chapter Introduction
20.1 Oxidative Phosphorylation in Eukaryotes Takes Place in Mitochondria
20.2 Oxidative Phosphorylation Depends on Electron Transfer
20.3 The Respiratory Chain Consists of Proton Pumps and a Physical Link to the Citric Acid Cycle
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
PROBLEMS
Chapter Introduction
21.1 A Proton Gradient Powers the Synthesis of ATP
21.2 Shuttles Allow Movement Across Mitochondrial Membranes
21.3 Cellular Respiration is Regulated by the Need for ATP
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
PROBLEMS
Section Introduction
Chapter Introduction
22.1 Photosynthesis Takes Place in Chloroplasts
22.2 Photosynthesis Transforms Light Energy into Chemical Energy
22.3 Two Photosystems Generate a Proton Gradient and NADPH
22.4 A Proton Gradient Drives ATP Synthesis
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
PROBLEMS
Chapter Introduction
23.1 The Calvin Cycle Synthesizes Hexoses from Carbon Dioxide and Water
23.2 The Calvin Cycle Is Regulated by the Environment
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
PROBLEMS
Section Introduction
Chapter Introduction
24.1 Glycogen Breakdown Requires Several Enzymes
24.2 Phosphorylase Is Regulated by Allosteric Interactions and Reversible Phosphorylation
24.3 Epinephrine and Glucagon Signal the Need for Glycogen Breakdown
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
PROBLEMS
Chapter Introduction
25.1 Glycogen Is Synthesized and Degraded by Different Pathways
25.2 Metabolism in Context: Glycogen Breakdown and Synthesis Are Reciprocally Regulated
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
PROBLEMS
Chapter Introduction
26.1 The Pentose Phosphate Pathway Yields NADPH and Five-Carbon Sugars
26.2 Metabolism in Context: Glycolysis and the Pentose Phosphate Pathway Are Coordinately Controlled
26.3 Glucose 6-phosphate Dehydrogenase Lessens Oxidative Stress
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
PROBLEMS
Section Introduction
Chapter Introduction
27.1 Fatty Acids Are Processed in Three Stages
27.2 The Degradation of Unsaturated and Odd-Chain Fatty Acids Requires Additional Steps
27.3 Ketone Bodies Are Another Fuel Source Derived from Fats
27.4 Metabolism in Context: Fatty Acid Metabolism Is a Source of Insight into Various Physiological States
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
PROBLEMS
Chapter Introduction
28.1 Fatty Acid Synthesis Takes Place in Three Stages
28.2 Additional Enzymes Elongate and Desaturate Fatty Acids
28.3 Acetyl CoA Carboxylase Is a Key Regulator of Fatty Acid Metabolism
28.4 Metabolism in Context: Ethanol Alters Energy Metabolism in the Liver
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
PROBLEMS
Chapter Introduction
29.1 Phosphatidate Is a Precursor of Storage Lipids and Many Membrane Lipids
29.2 Cholesterol Is Synthesized from Acetyl Coenzyme A in Three Stages
29.3 The Regulation of Cholesterol Synthesis Takes Place at Several Levels
29.4 Lipoproteins Transport Cholesterol and Triacylglycerols Throughout the Organism
29.5 Cholesterol Is the Precursor of Steroid Hormones
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
PROBLEMS
Section Introduction
Chapter Introduction
30.1 Nitrogen Removal Is the First Step in the Degradation of Amino Acids
30.2 Ammonium Ion Is Converted into Urea in Most Terrestrial Vertebrates
30.3 Carbon Atoms of Degraded Amino Acids Emerge As Major Metabolic Intermediates
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
PROBLEMS
Chapter Introduction
31.1 The Nitrogenase Complex Fixes Nitrogen
31.2 Amino Acids Are Made from Intermediates of Major Pathways
31.3 Feedback Inhibition Regulates Amino Acid Biosynthesis
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
PROBLEMS
Chapter Introduction
32.1 An Overview of Nucleotide Biosynthesis and Nomenclature
32.2 The Pyrimidine Ring Is Assembled and Then Attached to a Ribose Sugar
32.3 The Purine Ring Is Assembled on Ribose Phosphate
32.4 Ribonucleotides Are Reduced to Deoxyribonucleotides
32.5 Nucleotide Biosynthesis Is Regulated by Feedback Inhibition
32.6 Disruptions in Nucleotide Metabolism Can Cause Pathological Conditions
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
PROBLEMS
Section Introduction
Chapter Introduction
33.1 A Nucleic Acid Consists of Bases Linked to a Sugar–Phosphate Backbone
33.2 Nucleic Acid Strands Can Form a Double-Helical Structure
33.3 DNA Double Helices Can Adopt Multiple Forms
33.4 Eukaryotic DNA Is Associated with Specific Proteins
33.5 RNA Can Adopt Elaborate Structures
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
PROBLEMS
Chapter Introduction
34.1 DNA Is Replicated by Polymerases
34.2 DNA Replication Is Highly Coordinated
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
PROBLEMS
Chapter Introduction
35.1 Errors Can Arise in DNA Replication
35.2 DNA Damage Can Be Detected and Repaired
35.3 DNA Recombination Plays Important Roles in Replication and Repair
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
PROBLEMS
Section Introduction
Chapter Introduction
36.1 Cellular RNA Is Synthesized by RNA Polymerases
36.2 RNA Synthesis Comprises Three Stages
36.3 The lac Operon Illustrates the Control of Bacterial Gene Expression
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
PROBLEMS
Chapter Introduction
37.1 Eukaryotic Cells Have Three Types of RNA Polymerases
37.2 RNA Polymerase II Requires Complex Regulation
37.3 Gene Expression Is Regulated by Hormones
37.4 Histone Acetylation Results in Chromatin Remodeling
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
PROBLEMS
Chapter Introduction
38.1 Mature Ribosomal RNA Is Generated by the Cleavage of a Precursor Molecule
38.2 Transfer RNA Is Extensively Processed
38.3 Messenger RNA Is Modified and Spliced
38.4 RNA Can Function as a Catalyst
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
PROBLEMS
Section Introduction
Chapter Introduction
39.1 The Genetic Code Links Nucleic Acid and Protein Information
39.2 Amino Acids Are Activated by Attachment to Transfer RNA
39.3 A Ribosome Is a Ribonucleoprotein Particle Made of Two Subunits
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
PROBLEMS
Chapter Introduction
40.1 Protein Synthesis Decodes the Information in Messenger RNA
40.2 Peptidyl Transferase Catalyzes Peptide-Bond Synthesis
40.3 Bacteria and Eukaryotes Differ in the Initiation of Protein Synthesis
40.4 A Variety of Biomolecules Can Inhibit Protein Synthesis
40.5 Ribosomes Bound to the Endoplasmic Reticulum Manufacture Secretory and Membrane Proteins
40.6 Protein Synthesis Is Regulated by a Number of Mechanisms
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
PROBLEMS
Chapter Introduction
41.1 Nucleic Acids Can Be Synthesized from Protein-Sequence Data
41.2 Recombinant DNA Technology Has Revolutionized All Aspects of Biology
41.3 Eukaryotic Genes Can Be Manipulated with Considerable Precision
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
PROBLEMS
APPENDIX A: Physical Constants and Conversion of Units
APPENDIX B: Acidity Constants
APPENDIX C: Standard Bond Lengths
APPENDIX D: Water-Soluble Vitamins
Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Chapter 4
Chapter 5
Chapter 6
Chapter 7
Chapter 8
Chapter 9
Chapter 10
Chapter 11
Chapter 12
Chapter 13
Chapter 14
Chapter 15
Chapter 16
Chapter 17
Chapter 18
Chapter 19
Chapter 20
Chapter 21
Chapter 22
Chapter 23
Chapter 24
Chapter 25
Chapter 26
Chapter 27
Chapter 28
Chapter 29
Chapter 30
Chapter 31
Chapter 32
Chapter 33
Chapter 34
Chapter 35
Chapter 36
Chapter 37
Chapter 38
Chapter 39
Chapter 40
Chapter 41