I-1

Aa, 316

Ablation, glacial, 592–593, 593

Abrasion, 121, 121, 508

Absolute ages

explanation of, 196

geological time scale and, 210, 210–211

Abyssal hills, 576, 578

Abyssal plain, 570

Acadian orogeny, 269

Accreted terrains, 263, 265

Accretion

areas of, 264, 264–265, 265

explanation of, 263–264, 264

tectonic processes and, 265–266

Accretionary wedge, 571

Accumulation, in glaciers, 592–593, 593

Acidic water, 292, 292

Acidophiles, 290, 291t

Acid rain, 654

Acids, 439

Acid test, 69, 69

Active margins, 260, 570, 570–571

Adamantine luster, 72, 72t

African Plate, 31, 34, 38

Aftershocks, 351–352, 353

Agassiz, Louis, 606, 607

Age. See Dating; Isotopic dating

A-horizon, 447

Alabaster. See Gypsum

Alaska earthquake (1964), 452–453, 453

Albedo

climate system and, 610

explanation of, 413

Albedo feedback, 415

Alberts, Bruce, 5

Allegheny Plateau, 256

Alluvial environments, 124

Alluvial fans, 521, 522

Alluvial sediments, in deserts, 543–544, 544

Alpine glaciers. See Valley glaciers

Alpine-Himalayan belt, 267, 267

Alpine-Himalayan orogeny, 266, 267, 267, 268

Alps Mountains, 267

Alternative energy

biofuels as, 657–658

geothermal energy as, 660

hydroelectric energy as, 658, 659

increasing use of, 669

nuclear energy as, 655–657, 656, 657

solar energy as, 658, 658

wind energy as, 659, 658–659

Aluminum, 62, 67

Amino acids, origin of life and, 298

Amorphous, 58

Amphiboles, 158

cleavage in, 71, 71

metamorphism and, 153

in rocks, 76t, 95t

structure of, 66

Amphibolites, 160

Anaerobes, 290, 291t

Anaerobic zones, 291, 293, 294

Anatolian Plate, 31

Ancient water, 487

Andean orogeny, 266

Andesitic lava, 317, 317–318, 318

Andes Mountains, 35, 591

Angle of repose

explanation of, 450

of unconsolidated material, 451

of weathered rubble, 451

Angular unconformities, 200, 201, 204

Anhydrite, as sulfate, 68

Anhydrous, 68

Anions

classification by, 64–65, 65t

explanation of, 61

Antarctica

climate change and, 45

continental glaciers in, 590, 590, 591

glacier movement in, 594, 596, 597, 598

ice-core drilling in, 419

ice sheets of, 587

Antecedent stream, 505, 505, 507

Anthracite, 654

Anthropocene, 666

Anthropogenic emissions, global warming and, 16, 646

Anthropogenic global change

carbon emissions and, 432–433

fingerprints of, 428–430

Anticlinal theory, 192

Anticlinal trap, 192, 192, 647

Anticlines, 180

Apatite, Mohs scale of hardness and, 69t

Apollo missions (spacecraft), 221, 225, 230

Appalachian fold belt, 254, 256, 257, 267

Appalachian Mountains, 38, 44, 627, 652

Appalachian orogeny, 269

Aquicludes, 482

Aquifers

ancient microordanisms in, 494

coastal, 484, 485

confined and unconfined, 482, 482

explanation of, 482

recharge and discharge in, 482–484, 485

speed of flow and, 485

Arabian Plate, 123

Aragonite, precipitation of, 493

Archaea, 290

Archean eon, 18–19, 210, 274, 275

Archimedes, 404

Arctic ice cap, 590, 664, 665

Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR), 651, 651

Arenal volcano, 319

Argon, in atmosphere, 409

Aristotle, 8

Arkoses, 134

Army Corp of Engineers, 501

Arroyos. See Valleys

Arsenic, 491, 492

Artesian flow, 482

Artesian wells, 482

Asbestos, crystal habit of, 73

Aseismic ridge, 331

Ash, volcanic, 93

Ash-flow deposits, 326

Asteroids

explanation of, 224

impact of, 236, 237t

mass extinctions and, 236, 303–304

Asthenosphere

explanation of, 14, 16

temperature within, 314

Astrobiologists, 306

Astrobiology

explanation of, 306–307

habitable environments on Mars and, 308, 308

habitable zones around stars and, 307, 307–308

Astronomical positioning, 41–42

Asymmetrical fold, 181, 181

Atlantic Ocean

profile of, 575–577, 576

seafloor spreading in, 257

Atmosphere

climate system and, 15–16, 408–409

composition of, 409

explanation of, 14

formation of, 227, 227–228

layers of, 408, 409

origin of Earth’s, 299–300

volcanism and, 328, 328–329

I-2

Atmosphere-biosphere gas exchange, 426–427

Atmosphere-ocean gas exchange, 426

Atolls, 139

Atomic mass, 59

Atomic number, 59

Atomic structure

explanation of, 59, 59

of minerals, 61–62, 62

Autotrophs, 285

Axial plane, of fold, 180

Backshore, 565

Backwash, 555

Bacteria, 290

Badlands, 625, 625

Baguios, 558. See also Hurricanes

Baikal Lake, 522

Baja California, 44, 53, 53

Baltica, 267, 269

Banded iron formations, 300, 300

Barchans, 539

Barrier islands, 568, 569

Basaltic lavas, 315, 315–317, 316

Basalts

composition of, 96–97

as igneous rock, 74, 95

magmatic differentiation and, 101

texture of, 92

Basil slip, 594, 595

Basin and Range Province, 185

Basins

drainage, 503–504, 504

explanation of, 182, 182, 183

flexural, 123, 183

rift, 122, 183

Batholiths, 103

Bay of Fundy, 556

Bays, wave refraction and, 556

Beaches

common forms of, 566

erosion of, 520, 565–567, 582–583

explanation of, 564

preservation of, 566–567, 567

restoration of, 567, 582–584

sand budget of, 565–566, 566

sea level change and, 568–570

structure of, 565

Beagle (ship), 200

Bedding, 77–78

Bedding sequences, 129–130, 130

Bed load, 510

Bedrock, 173, 181–182, 623, 625, 637–638

B-horizon, 447

Big Bang, 19, 222. See also Cambrian explosion

Bioclastic sediments, 119

Biodiversity, 666–667

Biofilms, 289

Biofuels, 657, 657–658

Biogeochemical cycles

explanation of, 288

microorganisms and, 294

Biological sedimentary environment, 126–127, 127

Biological sediments, 77, 77, 118–119, 119

Biology, 283. See also Geobiology

Biomass, 643–644

Biosphere

biogeochemical cycle of phosphorus and, 288, 289

climate system and, 412

explanation of, 13, 14, 284, 412, 412

magnetic fields and, 402–403, 403

as system, 284, 284–288, 285, 286t, 287, 287t

Biotechnology, 669

Biotite, in igneous rocks, 95t

Bioturbation, 128, 129

Bituminous coal, 654

Black Hills dome, 182

Blowout dunes, 539

Blue Ridge province, 256

Blueschist, 164

Blyde River Canyon Nature Reserve, 508

Bombardment. See Heavy Bombardment; Late Heavy Bombardment; Meteorites

Bombs, 93–94

Bonds. See Chemical bonds; Covalent bonds; Ionic bonds

Bora Bora atoll, 139, 139

Boreholes. See Drilling

Bottomset beds, 513

Bowen’s reaction series, 99, 100

Bowknot Bend (Utah), 196

Braided streams, 502, 502–503

Brakers, 554

Branching networks, 505

Breakwaters, 566

Bressicas, 320

Brittle material, 176

Bryce Canyon, 204

Building codes, 372–373

Buoyant fragment, accretion of, 264

Burial

in rock cycle, 117, 117

of sediments, 130, 131

Burial metamorphism, 153, 154

Bushveld deposit (South Africa), 112

Calcite

acid test for, 69, 69

as biological sediment, 77

as carbonate, 67, 69

cleavage in, 70, 71

as mineral, 58, 58

Mohs scale of hardness and, 69t

precipitation of, 493

in rocks, 76t

in sedimentary rocks, 78, 122, 419

Calcium, in seawater, 122, 137, 138

Calcium carbonate. See also Calcite

at hot springs, 493

indirect precipitation of, 293

windblown, 533

Calcium cycle, 425, 425–426

Calcium ions, 122

Caldera collapse, 335–336

Calderas, 322, 323

Caledonian orogeny, 269

Cambrian explosion, 301, 301, 303

Canada. See North America

Canadian Shield

epeirogeny and, 271

explanation of, 254–255, 255

Canyons. See specific canyons

Capacity, sediment load, 510

Cape Cod, 568, 569

Cape Cod National Seashore, 567

Cape Hatteras, 580, 580

Carbohydrates, 285

Carbon. See also Diamonds; Graphite

atomic structure of, 59, 60

as building block of life, 286, 310

inorganic, 58

isotopic dating and, 209

methane production and, 305

Carbon-12, 59, 209, 310

Carbon-13, 310

Carbon-14, 209, 310, 607

Carbonate compensation depth, 579, 579

Carbonate environments, 127

Carbonate ion, 67

Carbonate platforms, 137, 138, 142

Carbonates

in seawater, 140

structure of, 67, 67, 70

Carbonate sediments/rocks

direct biological precipitation of, 136–137

explanation of, 78, 136

indirect biological precipitation of, 138, 140

reefs and evolutionary processes and, 137–138, 138

vuggy pore networks in, 479

Carbon cycle

atmosphere-biosphere gas exchange and, 426–427

atmosphere-ocean gas exchange and, 426

engineering of, 669

explanation of, 423, 426, 427

function of, 426, 426–427, 427

human activities and, 427–428, 432–433

lithosphere-atmosphere gas exchange and, 427

Carbon dioxide

in ancient ice, 592

in atmosphere, 409

I-3

climate regulation and, 16

global warming and, 428, 429, 429, 439, 660, 660, 661, 667–668

photosynthesis and, 310, 311, 432, 433

in rainwater, 488

weathering and, 439, 440

Carbon economy, 644–645

Carbon emission stabilization, 669–670, 670

Carbonic acid, 439, 440, 441, 488

Carboniferous period, 644

Carbon intensity, 653

Carbon isotopes, 298, 310

Carbon sequestration, 669

Caribou, Maine, 592

Carlsbad Caverns, 488–489

Cascade Mountains, 473

Cascadia subduction zone, 38, 371

Casita volcano, 449

Casler, Michael, 657

Cassini-Huygens mission (spacecraft), 246, 248

Cataclastic texture, 184

Cations

explanation of, 61

in minerals, 61–62, 67

Cation substitution, 62, 67

Caucasus Mountains, 267

Cavendish, Henry, 10

Caves, 488, 488

Cementation, 77, 131, 132

Cenozioc era, 206

Central eruptions, 321–324, 322–324

Central vent eruptions, 315, 315

Chalcopyrite, 82, 83

Challenger (ship), 551

Channeled Scablands, 605, 605

Channelization, 501–502

Channels

in braided streams, 502, 502–503

explanation of, 500, 500

origin of, 507–509, 507–509

patterns of, 500–501, 501

Chelyabinsk meteor explosion, 15

Chemical bonds, 61

Chemical compounds, 60, 60–61

Chemical contaminates, in groundwater, 490

Chemical reactions, 60, 60–61

Chemical sedimentary environment, 126–127, 127

Chemical sediments, 77, 77, 118, 118

Chemical stability, 442

Chemical stratigraphy, 213

Chemical weathering. See also Weathering

carbon dioxide and, 439, 440

chemical stability and, 442

in deserts, 542, 543

erosion and, 508

explanation of, 116, 436

organisms and, 443

oxygen and, 441–442

water and, 438

Chemoautotrophs, 294

Chemofossils, 299

Chert, 143–144

Chicxulub site, 304, 304

Chile earthquake, 364

Chlorinated solvents, 490

Chomolungma, 279

C-horizon, 447

Chromite, as ore mineral, 83, 84

Chromium, 67

Chromium ore, 83, 84

Chrysotile, 73

Cinder cones, 321

Cinder-cone volcanoes, 322

Cinnabar, 82, 83

Circular structures, 182, 182–183

Circumference, of Earth, 23–24

Cirque, 601

Cities, on floodplains, 506, 506

Civilization, as global geosystem, 642

Clark, William, 499

Clastic particles, 117–118, 121

Clay, 135

Clay minerals

structure of, 67

weathering and, 438

Claystones, 135

Clean coal technologies, 654

Cleavage

explanation of, 70, 74t

in metamorphic rocks, 155

number of planes and pattern of, 70–71, 71

quality of surfaces and, 71

Cliffs, structurally controlled, 626

Climate

effect on streams, 521

explanation of, 15, 408

feedback between topography and, 628–629

hydrology and, 472–473, 473

plate tectonic processes and, 473

rock cycle and, 79

solar energy and, 13, 14

Climate change. See also Global warming

biodiversity loss and, 666–667

carbon dioxide and, 16

catastrophic changes to climate system and, 665

cryosphere change and, 664, 665

desertification and, 541–542

effects on ecosystems and resources of, 663t

fossil fuel consumption and, 646

movement of tectonic plates and, 45

ocean acidification and, 666

regional weather patterns and, 662–663, 663

sea level rise and, 664–665, 665

species and ecosystem migration and, 665

uplift and, 632

Climate models, 415–416

Climate system

anthropogenic global change and, 428–430, 429, 431

atmosphere and, 408–409, 409

biosphere and, 412, 412

calcium cycle and, 425, 425–426

carbon cycle and, 423, 426, 426–428

components of, 15, 408–412

cryosphere and, 411, 411

dating of, 213, 213

explanation of, 14, 15–16, 408

feedbacks in, 414–415

glaciations and, 411, 609

greenhouse effect and, 413–415, 413–416

hydrosphere and, 409–411, 410

importance of, 407

lithosphere and, 411–412

plate tectonics and, 79, 80, 81, 166, 473, 632

rock cycle and, 79, 80

Climate variation

explanation of, 416–417

long-term global, 417–422, 418, 420, 421

during most recent glacial cycle, 422–423

short-term regional, 417

Coal

environmental costs of, 654

explanation of, 144, 644, 653–654

formation of, 58, 653, 653–654

resources of, 654, 654

Coal ash, 654

Coal mining, 654, 655

Coastal aquifers, 484, 485

Coastal plain, 256–257

Coastal processes

explanation of, 552–553

hurricanes and storm surges and, 557–559, 559, 560t, 561–564, 562–564

surf zone and, 554, 554–555

tides and, 556–557, 557

wave motion and, 553–554, 554

wave refraction and, 555–556

Coastlines

beaches and, 564–567, 565, 566

depositional, 568, 569

effect of coastal processes on, 564

effect of sea level change on, 568–570

erosion along, 567–569, 568

erosion and deposition at, 567–568, 569

explanation of, 552–553, 553

sea level change and, 568–570

shaping of, 564–570, 565–569

I-4

tides near, 557

variations in, 553

Coconino Sandstone, 204

Cocos Plate, North American Cordillera and, 258, 259

Code of ethics, for scientists, 5

Coesite, 155

Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, 469

Collision

continent-continent, 165–166

paleocontinental, 44

Color

in felsic rocks, 95, 96

mineral, 72, 72–73, 73, 74t

Colorado Plateau

epeirogenic processes in, 272

explanation of, 259

stratigraphy of, 204, 205

Colorado River

drainage basin of, 504

sedimentary deposits in, 214

Columbia (supercontinent), 272

Columbia Plateau, 326, 333

Columbus, Christopher, 23

Combustion engine, 644

Comets, exploration of, 225

Compaction, 77, 131–132

Competence, 510

Compressional waves, 10, 12, 355, 357, 384, 386. See also P waves; Seismic waves

Compressive forces, 172

Compressive tectonics, 185

Computer simulations, 5

Concentration factor, 81

Conchoidal fracture, 71

Concordant intrusions, 103, 104

Conduction, 391

Cone of depression, 483, 484

Confined aquifers, 482, 482

Conglomerate, 133

Consolidated materials, 449, 450

Contact metamorphism, 78, 79, 153, 154

Continental basin, 260

Continental crust. See also Crust

deformational style of, 184–185

explanation of, 11, 11

formation of, 273–274, 275

geologic record of, 253

rifting of, 36, 37

Continental drift. See also Plate tectonics; Seafloor spreading

assembly of Pangaea by, 44

explanation of, 7, 28, 28–29

reconstruction of history of, 44

Continental glaciers. See also Glaciers

climate change and, 665

explanation of, 590, 591

history of, 587

ice distribution and, 608, 608

lakes formed by, 605

Continental margins

continental shelf and, 571

continental slope and rise and, 571, 572

environments in, 126

explanation of, 570

submarine canyons and, 571–572

types of, 570, 570–571

Continental rifting

accretion of, 265

explanation of, 36

Continental rise, 570, 571

Continental sedimentary environments, 124, 125

Continental shelf

environments in, 124, 126

explanation of, 122, 571

of passive margins, 571

sediment in, 122–123, 579

Continental slope, 570, 571

Continent-continent collision, 165–166, 267

Continent-continent convergence, 38

Continents

age of, 262

deep structure and, 276, 276–278

grand reconstruction of, 44–45

growth of, 262–266, 263–265

modification of, 266–267, 266–271, 269, 271–273, 272t, 273

ocean basins vs., 552

tectonic provinces in, 261, 261

Contours, 618–620

Convection

explanation of, 16, 16–17

in mantle and core, 392

Convention on the Law of the Sea, 581

Convergence

continent-continent, 38

ocean-continent, 37–38, 163–165

ocean-ocean, 36–37

Convergent boundaries

earthquakes at, 364

explanation of, 31, 34–35, 36

illustration of, 32–33

Copper ores, 82, 83

Coral reefs. See also Reefs

Darwin and, 139, 139

explanation of, 137

Cordillera, North American, 254, 257–259, 258, 263, 266

Cordón Caulle volcano, 328

Core. See also Inner core; Outer core

composition of, 12, 12–13, 226, 390

explanation of, 10

inner and outer, 11–12, 14

seismic data on, 390

Core-mantle boundary, 10, 390

Coriolis effect

explanation of, 530–531

hurricanes and, 563

Coronae, 235

Corundum, Mohs scale of hardness and, 69t

Country rock, 93

Covalent bonds, 61, 70

Covelite, 81

Crater counting, 230

Crater Lake Caldera, 323, 323

Craters

explanation of, 323

impact, 236, 304

lunar, 230

on Mars, 238, 241

on Mercury, 232

on Venus, 233, 234

Cratonic keels

age of, 289

composition of, 276, 277–278

explanation of, 276–277

Cratons

explanation of, 260

origins of, 273–274, 274, 275

Creep, 456, 457

Cretaceous period, 206, 210, 257

Cretaceous-Tertiary mass extinction, 303, 305

Crevasses, in valley glaciers, 594, 596

Cristobalite, 64

Cross-bedding, 127, 128

Cross-cutting relationships

explanation of, 201–202, 202, 203

relative age and, 203

Cross sections, geologic, 174, 175, 175, 182

Crude oil, 144, 191–192, 644, 647. See also Oil; Petroleum

Crust

composition of, 12, 13, 226–227, 388

deformational behavior of, 254

explanation of, 11, 11

extended, 260

felsic, 263

seismic data on, 388

water in, 492–494, 493, 494

Cryosphere

climate change and, 664, 665

climate system and, 411, 609

explanation of, 14, 15, 411, 587

Crystal faces, 62, 63

Crystal habit, 73, 74t

Crystalline, 58

Crystallization

explanation of, 61

of igneous rocks, 92

laboratory studies of, 92

of magma, 112–113

of minerals, 62, 62–63, 63

Crystals, geologic history in, 167–168

Cuestas, 626, 628

Curie, Marie Sklodowska, 208

Curiosity (spacecraft), 238, 240–243, 241

I-5

Currents. See also Wind

ocean, 515

rip, 556

strength of, 120, 121

as transport agents, 119–121, 120, 509–511, 509–511

turbidity, 126, 128, 571, 572

Cyanobacteria, 299

Cyclones, 558

Cynobacteria, 288

Dacite, 96

Dams, stream, 520

Darcy, Henri, 485, 496

Darcy’s law, 485, 486, 496–497

Darwin, Charles, 139, 303

Dasuopu Glacier, 431

Dating, 196. See also Isotopic dating

Daughter atoms, 208, 209

Davis, William Morris, 630–632, 634

Debris. See Unconsolidated materials

Debris avalanches, 459, 459–460

Debris flows, 457, 458

Decompression melting, 98, 107, 109

Deep Impact (spacecraft), 245, 246

Deep mantle, 14

Deep-sea drilling, 41, 41

Deep-sea environments, 126

Deepwater Horizon explosion, 650, 651, 652

Deflation, 534, 534–535, 535

Deformation

brittle and ductile behavior and, 175–176, 176

circular structures and, 182, 182–183

continental, 184–188, 185–188

explanation of, 171, 172

faults and, 177–179, 177–179

folds and, 179–181, 179–182

geologic history and, 188, 188

joints and, 183, 183

plate tectonics and, 172

textures in, 183–184, 184

Delaware Water Gap, 505

Delta plain, 513

Deltas

effect of ocean currents, tides and plate tectonic processes on, 515

explanation of, 513, 513

growth of, 513, 514, 515

human effects on, 515

Dendritic drainage, 504, 505

Density

of Earth, 10

of minerals, 64, 73, 74t

of rocks, 10

Deposition

by glaciers, 603–606, 604, 605

in rock cycle, 116, 117

sediment transportation and, 119

at shorelines, 567–568

by wind, 535–540, 536–540

Depositional remanent magnetization, 401

Desertification

climate change and, 541–542

effect of humans on, 542, 548

explanation of, 529

prediction of, 548–549

Desert landscapes, 544–546, 545

Desert pavement, 534

Deserts

alluvial sediments in, 543–544

colors of, 543

eolian sediments in, 544

evaporite sediments in, 544

expansion of, 529

floods in, 543, 544

landscape of, 544–546, 545

locations of, 540–542, 541

nature of, 124, 540

plate tectonics and, 541

role of human activities on, 542

weathering and erosion in, 542–543

Desert varnish, 543, 543

Desert Watch project, 541

Development. See Sustainable development

Diagenesis

explanation of, 130

metamorphism and, 153

in rock cycle, 117, 117

of sediments, 130–132, 131

Diamonds

as chemical compound, 60, 60

cleavage in, 70

formation of, 63–64, 64

in kimberlite pipes, 277, 277

microscopic, 155

Mohs scale of hardness and, 69t

Diatoms, 581

Diatremes, 155, 323–324, 324

Diesel, Rudolf, 657

Dietz, Robert, 30

Differentiation, gravitational, 225. See also Magmatic differentiation

Digital elevation model (DEM), 280, 619

Dikes, 104

Diorite, 96

Dip, 173, 173

Dipolar field, 17, 17

Dipole magnetic field, 396, 396

Dip-slip faults, 177, 178, 179

Discharge

in aquifer, 482–483, 484

calculation of, 517

explanation of, 480, 516

of stream flow, 516–518, 517, 518

Disconformities, 200

Discordant intrusions, 103

Disseminated deposits, 82–83, 83

Dissolution rates, 442

Distributaries, 513

Divergent boundaries

continental rifting and, 36

earthquakes at, 364

explanation of, 31, 34, 36, 330

illustration of, 32–33

oceanic spreading centers and, 36

Divide, 503, 504, 504

Dolomite

as carbonate, 67

cleavage in, 70

in rocks, 76t, 78, 136

Dolostone, 136

Domes, 182, 182–183

Double-chain structures

in amphiboles, 71

explanation of, 65, 66

Drainage basins, 503–504, 504

Drainage networks

explanation of, 505

geologic history and, 505, 507

Drake, Edwin, 644

Drake’s Folly, 644, 644

Drift, 603. See also Continental drift; Plate tectonics; Seafloor spreading

Drilling

deep-sea, 41, 41

oil, 648

Drinking water, 491–492

Droughts

examples of, 473, 474, 475

explanation of, 473, 474

severity of, 475

Drumlins, 604, 604

Dry washes, 545

Ductile material, 176

Dunes. See Sand dunes

Dust, 531, 532

Dust devils, 533

Dust storms

characteristics of, 532

on Mars, 238, 238, 533, 533

Dwarf planets, 229

Eagle Nebula, 223

Earth. See also Interior of Earth

ancient views of, 9

characteristics of, 228, 228, 236

circumference of, 23, 24

composition of, 10–13, 12, 388, 388–390, 389

core of, 10–13, 11, 12, 226, 390

crust of, 11, 11, 12, 13, 226–227, 254, 260, 388, 492–494, 493, 494

density of, 10, 12

evolution of life on, 19–21

formation of, 19, 225–227, 227, 296–297

geobiological events in history of, 296–300, 297–300

I-6

gravitational differentiation of, 225, 227

interactions shaping, 13

layers of, 9–13, 10

magnetic field on, 396, 398–399, 398–400

mantle of, 10, 11, 12, 12, 14, 107, 227, 388–390, 389, 394, 395

orbital variations of, 17, 420

origin of life on, 296–299

origin of oxygenated atmosphere on, 299–300

ray path of seismic waves through, 384–387, 385, 386

rotation of, 530, 556

shape of, 8–9, 397, 397

surface of, 8–9, 230

temperature of, 12, 273

as terrestrial planet, 224

visualizing three-dimensional structure of, 394, 395, 396

Earthflows, 456–457

Earthquake engineering, 372–373

Earthquakes. See also Seismic waves; Tsunamis; specific earthquakes

at convergent boundaries, 34

at divergent boundaries, 34

early warning systems for, 373

elastic rebound theory and, 349, 350, 351, 351

explanation of, 9, 348–349

faulting and shaking from, 366, 366–367

fault patterns and, 362, 363, 364–365, 365

fault rupture during, 348–349, 351

fires following, 369

foreshocks and aftershocks from, 351, 352, 352

frequency of, 359–360

hazards and risks of, 365–369, 366–369

intraplate, 364

landslides and ground failures from, 367, 453

locating focus of, 357

magnitude of, 357, 359, 359–360

measuring size of, 357, 358–359, 359–362, 360t, 361, 362

on megathrusts, 185–186, 367, 368

methods to study, 353–362

in the Pacific Ring of Fire, 31

plate tectonics and, 348

prediction of, 375, 375–378

reducing risk of, 369–373, 370–373

safety steps for, 374

seismic waves generated by, 343, 355, 356, 357, 358

seismographs to study, 354, 354

shaking intensity of, 360–361

silent, 362

in subduction zones, 185–186, 347

tsunamis and, 367–369, 368, 369

volcanic eruptions and, 338

Earth system

carbon in, 286

climate system and, 15, 15–16

components of, 14, 14–15

explanation of, 13, 13–15, 14

geodynamo and, 17, 17–18

interactions in, 18, 18

as open system, 13, 14

plate tectonic system and, 16, 16–17

East African Rift Valley, 36, 184

Ebb tide, 557

Eclogites, 155

Ecology, 6

Ecosystems

biogeochemical cycles in, 288

climate change and, 663t, 665, 665

explanation of, 284, 284–285

inputs in, 285–286, 286t

processes and outputs in, 286, 287, 287t, 288

Effluent streams, 480

E-horizon, 447

Einstein, Albert, 5

Elastic rebound theory

explanation of, 349, 350, 351

forecasting and, 376–377

El Capitan mountain (Texas), 126

El Chichòn volcano, 412

Electrons, 59, 59

Electron sharing, 60

Electron transfer, 60

Elements, 113

Elevation

explanation of, 618

landscape development and, 630

weathering and erosion and, 628–629

El Niño, 417, 417

El Niño - Southern Oscillation (ENSO), 416, 417

Emergency management

for earthquakes, 373, 374

for tsunamis, 373

Emmons Glacier, 596

Endeavour (space shuttle), 279

End moraine, 603t

Energy. See also Alternative energy; Fossil fuels

explanation of, 286

geothermal, 340–341

global consumption of, 645–646, 646

Energy conservation, 645

Energy-efficient technologies, 645

Energy policy, 668–669

Energy resources

explanation of, 643, 643–644

future outlook for, 646

Enhanced greenhouse effect, 428, 430

Environmental impact

of coal, 654

of hydraulic fracturing, 652

of oil, 650, 650–651, 651

Eolian processes, 530, 533

Eolian sediments, 544. See also Sand dunes

Eons, 210–211

Epeirogeny, 272–273, 273

Epicenter, 351, 362

Epochs, 202

Equator, wind belts and, 530, 531

Eras, 202

Eratosthenes, 9, 23–24

Ergs, 544

Erosion. See also Mass wasting; Weathering

of beaches, 565–567, 582–583

of coastlines, 567–569, 568

in deserts, 542–543

elevation and, 628–629

explanation of, 77, 116, 117, 436

glacial, 587–588

by groundwater, 488–489, 488–490

headward, 508

precipitation and, 473

rates of, 637–638

sediment transport and, 510–511

at shorelines, 567–568

by streams, 507–509, 507–509, 543, 623, 624, 625

uplift and, 279, 279–280, 632, 633, 634–636

weathering and, 117–119, 118t, 444–445, 445, 508

wind and, 534, 534–535, 537

Erosion of the Mother Lode, 85

Erratics, 603

Eruptions. See also Volcanoes

central vent, 315, 315

clouds from, 336–337

fissure, 325, 325–326, 326, 333, 334

phreatic, 318, 318

Eskers, 604

Ethanol, 657

Eukaryota, 290

Eukaryotic algae, 300

Eukaryotic fossils, 300

Euphrates River, 506

Eurasian Plate, 31, 34, 35, 38, 123, 267

Evaporation

of seawater, 140–141, 141

of water from oceans, 470–471

Evaporite environments, 127

Evaporites

marine, 140–141, 141

nonmarine, 141–142

Evaporite sediments

marine, 140–141, 141

nonmarine, 141–142

playas and, 544

I-7

Evolution

explanation of, 301

geologic record and, 19–21

mass extinctions and, 21

microorganisms and, 297

natural selection and, 301, 303

reefs and, 137–138, 139

Evolutionary radiation, 300, 302, 303

Ewing, Maurice (“Doc”), 29, 29

Exfoliation, 444, 444

Exhumation, 161, 164, 166

Exotic terrains, 264–265

Explanets, 248

Extended crust, 260

External heat. See Solar energy

External heat engine, 13

Extinctions, 285. See also Mass extinctions

Extremophiles

explanation of, 290–291, 291t

in hot springs, 493

Extrusive igneous rocks, 76, 76t, 93–95, 94

Extrusive puroclasts, 93

Eyjafjallajõkull volcano (Iceland), 331, 336–337

Farallon Plate

North American Cordillera and, 258, 259

subduction of, 262

Fault breccia, 184, 184

Faulting, as earthquake hazard, 366–367

Fault mechanisms

explanation of, 361, 361

plate boundaries and, 362, 363

Fault rupture, during earthquakes, 351

Faults

earthquakes and, 348–349, 362, 363, 364–365, 365

explanation of, 172, 172–173, 173, 177

identification of, 177–179, 178, 179

types of, 177, 186, 361

Fault scarps, 177–178, 179

Fault slip, 349, 350, 352

Fault systems, 364–365, 365

Fault traces, 178

Fault trap, 647

Faunal succession, 199, 199

Feedback, 414–415

Feldspars

formation of, 63

in igneous rocks, 76t, 95t

structure of, 66, 67

weathering of, 438, 439, 440, 441

Felsic crust, 263

Felsic minerals

explanation of, 94, 95, 95t

melting temperature for, 97, 97

Felsic rocks, 95–97, 96

Fibrous fracture, 71

Fig Tree formation, 299

Fire, from earthquakes, 369

Firn, 592

Fission, 655

Fissure eruptions, 325, 325–326, 333, 334

Fjords, 602

Flake tectonics, 235

Flank collapse, 335

Flash floods, in deserts, 543, 544

Flexural basins, 123, 183

Flint, 143–144

Flood basalts

explanation of, 326

mass extinction and, 343–344

Flood frequency curve, 518, 519

Floodplains

cities on, 506, 506

development on, 503, 503

explanation of, 500, 501

terraces in former, 521–522

Floods

in deserts, 543, 544

explanation of, 518

flash, 543, 544

global warming and, 665, 666

from hurricanes, 558

prediction of, 518

protection from, 506

sediments deposited by, 503

Flood tide, 557

Florida Peninsula, 257

Flow, 453, 470

Fluid-induced melting, 98, 109, 110

Fluids, metamorphic process and, 153

Fluorite, and Mohs scale of hardness, 69t

Flux, 284

Focus (earthquake)

explanation of, 351

method to locate, 357, 358

Fold and thrust belts, 185, 186–187

Fold axis, 180, 180

Folds

explanation of, 172, 172–173, 179

relationships in, 181–182

size of, 179, 179–180, 180

types of, 180–181, 181

Foliated rocks, 155–157, 157

Foliation, 79, 155, 156

“Fool’s gold.” See Pyrite

Foot wall, 177

Foraminifera, 136–138

Foraminiferal oozes, 579

Ford, Henry, 657

Forearc basin, 571

Forecasting

long-term, 375

medium-term, 376–378

Foreset beds, 513

Foreshore, 565

Formations, 173

Fossil fuels. See also Coal; Natural gas; Oil

climate change and, 646

consumption of, 645, 645

explanation of, 644

resources of, 646–655

Fossils

accreted terrain and, 264

Cambrian, 303

continental drift and, 28–29, 29

eukaryotic, 300

explanation of, 197, 197

geologic time scale and, 297

origin of life and, 298–299

Pleistocene, 419

Precambrian, 301, 302, 303

as recorders of geologic time, 198–200

Fracking, 135, 651–652, 652

Fractional crystallization, 99–100, 100

Fracture, 71, 74t

Fracture porosity, 478

Franklin, Benjamin, 28

Fresh water, 471

Frost wedging, 443

Full-cost accounting, 668

Fumaroles, 327, 327

Fusion power, 669

Gabbro, 95, 96

Galápagos Islands, 332

Galena, as ore mineral, 82, 83

Ganges River, 503

Garnet

chemical composition of, 167–168

in mantle, 107

in rocks, 76t

structure of, 71

Garnierite, 81

Gases, volcanic, 326, 327

Geco Topaz (vessel), 387

General circulation models, 415

General Map of Strata in England and Wales (Smith), 199

Genes, 289

Genetic information, in living organisms, 289–290

Geobiological events, geologic time scale of, 296, 297

Geobiologists, 288

Geobiology, 6, 6, 283

Geochemical cycles

chemical reactions and, 423–424, 424

explanation of, 423

residence time and, 423

transport across interfaces and, 424–425

Geochemistry, 6, 6

Geodesy

explanation of, 8–9, 41

plate movement and, 41–42

I-8

Geodynamo

Earth’s magnetic field and, 17

explanation of, 14, 17–18

Geoid, 397, 397

Geologic cross sections, 174, 175, 175

Geologic deduction, intermittent eruption of geysers and, 493

Geologic faults, 172, 172–173. See also Faults

Geologic folds, 172, 172–173. See also Folds

Geologic history, of region, 188, 188

Geologic maps

cross sections in, 174, 175, 175, 182

explanation of, 173–174, 174

oil exploration using, 191–192

of Siberian Traps, 343

symbols on, 174, 174

Geologic records

absolute age and, 196–197

cross-cutting relationships and, 201–202, 202, 203

drainage patterns and, 505, 507

earth’s origin and, 19

evolution of life and, 19–21

explanation of, 6–7, 7

fossils as recorders of, 198–200, 199

gaps in, 200, 200, 201

glaciations and, 609–611, 610

isotopic clocks and, 207–209, 208, 209t

overview of, 18–19, 195–196, 253

time line of events in, 18–19

Geologic time scale

eons and, 210, 210–211

explanation of, 202, 206

geobiological events and, 296, 297

intervals on, 202

mass extinctions and, 202, 206

perspectives on, 211, 211

petroleum source rocks and, 206–207, 207

as relative time scale, 207

stratigraphy and, 197–198, 204, 205, 212, 212–213, 213

Geology

explanation of, 4, 283

as science, 5–8, 5–8

Geomorphology, 617, 618, 636. See also Landscapes

Geophysics, 6, 6

Geosystems. See also specific system

civilization as global, 642

explanation of, 15

interactions among, 18

interactions of landscapes and, 626, 628–630, 629, 630

interactions of volcanoes and other, 326–329, 327, 328

soils as, 446, 446–447

streams as, 515–522, 516–522

volcanic, 314, 315

Geotherm, 392

Geothermal energy, 340–341, 660

Geothermal gradient

explanation of, 151, 151, 392, 394

in sedimentary basin, 145

Geothermometer, 151

Geysers

explanation of, 327

hydrothermal waters and, 493

intermittent eruption of, 493–494, 495

method to study, 494

The Geysers (California), 341, 342

Giant’s Causeway basalts, 96–97

Gilbert, William, 396

Glacial budget, 592–593, 593

Glacial cycles

ancient glaciations and, 609–611, 610

explanation of, 418, 606–607

Milankovitch cycles and, 420–422, 421

Pleistocene glaciations and, 609

sea level change and, 608–609

variations in most recent, 422–423

Glacial drift, 603

Glacial environments, 124

Glacial erosion

effects of, 587–588

process of, 598, 600–602, 600–602

Glacial rebound, 272, 393, 393

Glacial sedimentation

explanation of, 603

ice-laid depositions and, 603–604

water-laid deposits and, 604, 604–605, 605

Glaciation. See also Ice ages

ancient, 609–611, 611

continental drift and, 29

sea level change and, 606–607

Wisconsin, 422, 607–608, 608

Glacier National Park, 104

Glaciers

continental, 587, 590, 591, 605

explanation of, 588

formation of, 591–593, 592, 593

growth and shrinkage of, 592, 592–593, 593

landscapes formed by, 598, 600–602, 600–606, 603t, 604, 605

movement of, 594, 595–597, 596, 598

valley, 588–589, 589, 594, 595, 596

Global change, 660. See also Global warming; Ocean acidification

Global Positioning System (GPS)

explanation of, 42, 42

seismograph positioning and, 354

silent earthquakes and, 362

Global warming. See also Climate change

carbon dioxide and, 428, 429, 429

climate change and, 428, 430

greenhouse gases and, 16, 660, 660–661

ice sheets and, 587

mass extinction and, 304–306, 305

methane deposits and, 305

predictions of future, 661, 662

public debate over, 16

sea-level rise and, 484

twentieth-century, 428–430

Gneiss, 157, 157

Gobi Desert, 540

Goddard, Robert H., 223

Gold

in native state, 81, 81

panning for, 85, 85

Gondwana, 28, 44, 267, 269, 271, 609

Google Earth Project, 21–22, 50–51, 142–143, 189–190, 214–215, 247, 340–341, 463–464, 523–524, 546, 580, 612–613, 634–635

GPS. See Global positioning system (GPS)

Grade, of ore minerals, 87, 88

Graded bedding, 127–128

Graded streams, 521

Grains, 63

Grand Canyon Beds, 204

Grand Canyon National Park

erosion in, 520

Paradise Marble Canyon in, 479

stratigraphy of, 198

unconformities in, 200, 201

Vishnu schist in, 262

Granite

composition of, 95

cooling process and, 92–93

density of, 10

magmatic differentiation and, 101

texture of, 93, 93–94

weathering of, 438, 438, 443, 444

Granite-greenstone terrains, 274

Granoblastic rocks, 157–158

Granodiorite, 96

Granulite

explanation of, 158

metamorphic grade and, 160–161

Graphite, 63, 64, 64

Gravel, 133

Gravitation

formation of planets and, 223–224, 224

formation of Sun and, 223

ocean tides and, 556

Gravitational differentiation, 225, 227

Graywackes, 134

Great Barrier Reef, 142

Great Basin (Nevada), 151, 185, 540

Great Pyramid, 42

Great Rift Valley, 36

Great Salt Lake, 141, 141–142

Great Synthesis (1963-1968), 30–31

Great Trigonometrical Survey of India, 279–280

Greenhouse effect

Earth’s atmosphere and, 414, 414

I-9

enhanced, 428, 430

explanation of, 15–16, 413–414, 414

Greenhouse gases

climate models and, 415, 415–416

climate regulation and, 15–16, 412, 414–415

in developing countries, 668, 668–669

explanation of, 414

function of, 413–414

global warming and, 16, 660, 660–661

habitable zone and, 308

Greenland

continental glaciers in, 590, 590

ice-core drilling in, 419

ice sheets of, 587

Greenschists, 160

Greenstones, 158

Grenville province, 271

Groins, 566, 567, 567

Gros Ventre landslide, 461, 461–462

Grotzinger, John, 238

Ground moraine, 603t

Groundwater

aquifers and, 481, 482, 482

balanced recharge and discharge and, 482–484, 484

erosion by, 488–489, 488–490

explanation of, 470, 477

flow rates for, 485, 486, 496–497

management of, 485–488, 487

pollutants in, 490–491, 491

porosity and permeability and, 478–479, 479, 480t

potable, 491–492

speed of movement in, 485

Groundwater table, 480, 481

Gulches. See Valleys

Gulf of California, 36

Gulf of Mexico, as sedimentary basin, 257

Gulf Stream, 410–411, 501

Gully, 507, 507

Gunflint formation, 299

Gutenberg, Beno, 10

Gypsum

calcium cycle and, 426

as chemical sediment, 78

as evaporite, 140, 141

Mohs scale of hardness and, 69t

in rocks, 76t

selenite crystals as form of, 63

as sulfate, 68, 69

Habitable zones, 307, 307–308

Hack, John, 630, 636

Hadean eon, 18, 210

Hager, Brad, 397

Haiti, 667, 667

Haiti earthquake, 367

Half-life, 208, 209, 209

Halides, 65, 65t

Halite

as chemical sediment, 77, 78

classification of, 64–65

as evaporite, 140, 442

precipitation of, 64

in rocks, 76t

Halley’s Comet, 225

Hallucigenia, 302

Halophiles, 291, 291, 291t

Hanging valleys, 601, 602

Hanging walls, 177, 179

Hardness, mineral, 69–70, 74t

Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, 506

Hawaiian Islands

mantle plume and, 50

seafloor of, 335

tides in, 556

volcanoes in, 331–332, 332

Hazards. See also Emergency management

risks vs., 369–370

seismic, 370, 370–372

Headward erosion, 508

Health, coal mining and, 654

Heat engines, 13, 13

Heavy Bombardment, 230, 231, 231, 273

Hector Mine earthquake, 365

Heezen, Bruce, 29, 30, 31

Helium, 223

Hematite

on Mars, 240

as ore mineral, 81

as oxide, 67

Herbert Glacier, 589

Hercynian orogeny, 269

Hess, Harry, 30

Heterotrophs, 285

High-grade metamorphic rocks, 150

High-grade metamorphic terrains, 274

High-pressure metamorphism, 153, 154–155

Himalaya Mountains

age of, 622

continent-continent collision and, 165–166, 267

as convergent boundary, 35

orogeny and, 266–267, 267, 268, 271

topography of, 9, 20

uplift and erosion of, 279, 279–280

Holmes, Arthur, 29, 45

Holocene, 422, 642

Homo sapiens. See Humans

Horizontal fold, 180, 181

Hornfels, 157–158

Horns, 601

Hot spot island chains, 578

Hot spots, 50, 331–333, 332, 332

Hot spot tracks, 333

Hot springs, 493, 495

Huang Ho river, 506

Hubbert, M. King, 650

Hubbert’s peak, 650

Hubble, Edwin Powell, 221, 222

Hubble Space Telescope, 222, 223

Human impact

on beaches, 566–567

on carbon cycle, 427–428, 432–433

on climate system, 412

on deltas, 515

on deserts, 542, 548

on mass movements, 462

Humans

earthquake impact on, 347–348, 365–369, 366–368

population growth, 642

volcanism impact on, 313, 334–341, 335–337, 339, 342

Humidity, relative, 472

Humus, 445

Hunt, T. Sterry, 192

Hurricane Katrina, 506, 558, 559, 562–564

Hurricane Mitch, 449

Hurricanes

explanation of, 557–558

formation of, 558–559

intensity of, 559, 560t

landfall of, 563–564, 564

storm surges from, 561, 561–563

tracking of, 563–564

Hurricane Sandy, 562–563

Hutton, James, 7, 8, 93

Hydraulic conductivity, 496

Hydraulic fracturing, 135, 648, 651–652, 652

Hydraulic gradient, 485, 496

Hydrocarbon reservoirs, 647, 648

Hydrocarbon resources, 655

Hydrochloric acid

for acid test, 69, 69

weathering and, 439

Hydroelectric energy, 658, 659

Hydrogen sulfide, microbes and, 293

Hydrogen sulfide gas, 293

Hydrologic cycle, 470, 472

Hydrology

climate and, 472–473, 473

explanation of, 470

of groundwater, 477–488, 479–485, 480t, 487

of runoff, 475–477, 476–478

Hydrolysis, 438

Hydrosphere. See also Streams

composition of, 409–410

explanation of, 14, 15, 409, 412

oceanic circulation patterns and, 410, 410–411

volcanism and, 327, 327–328, 328

Hydrothermal activity, 327

Hydrothermal deposits, 82, 82–83, 83

Hydrothermal fluids, metamorphism and, 153

I-10

Hydrothermal solutions, 82

Hydrothermal vents

microorganisms in, 299, 299

plumes in, 327

Hydrothermal waters, 492–494, 493, 494

Hydroxides, 65

Hypotheses, 4, 5

Iapetus, 269

Ice. See also Glaciers

as agent of erosion, 598, 600

cryosphere and, 411

properties of, 588

as rock, 588–590

transformation of snow crystals to, 592, 592

Ice ages

explanation of, 418

Paleozoic and Proterozoic, 422

Pleistocene, 418–421, 587

Iceberg calving, 589, 589

Icebergs, 588, 599, 599

Ice caps, 590

Ice-core drilling, 419

Iceland, as spreading center, 36

Ice sheets, 587. See also Continental glaciers

Ice shelves

breakup of, 599, 599

explanation of, 590

Ice streams, 596, 597

Igneous deposits, 83–84, 84

Igneous intrusions

explanation of, 102

plutons and, 103, 103

sills and dikes and, 103–104, 104

veins and, 105, 105

Igneous rocks

chemical and mineral composition of, 94–97, 95t, 96, 97t

classification of, 92, 92, 94, 96

common minerals of, 76

explanation of, 74, 75

extrusive, 76, 76, 93–95, 94

formation of, 76, 76, 106

intermediate, 96

intrusive, 76, 76, 93, 94

magma formation and, 97–99

magmatic differentiation and, 99–101, 100, 102

magmatic intrusions and, 102–105, 102–105

minerals in, 76t, 95t

plate tectonics and, 105–111, 106–110

porosity of, 478

texture of, 92–94, 92–94

Iguaçú River falls, 509

Impact craters, 236

Incised meanders, 501, 501

Index minerals, 159, 160

Indian Plate, 35, 38, 268

Indus River, 506

Infiltration, 470

Influent streams, 480

Inner core. See also Core; Outer core

composition of, 12, 12

explanation of, 11–12, 14

Inner planets. See Earth; Mars; Mercury (planet); Venus

Intensity scales, 360–361, 360t

Interglacial period, 418

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 428, 430, 433, 661, 662, 667

Intergranular porosity, 478

Interior of Earth. See also Earth

heat flow through, 390–392, 391, 392

layering and composition of, 388–390, 388i, 389

magnetic field and biosphere and, 402–403, 403

magnetic field and geodynamo of, 396, 398, 398–399, 399, 400

paleomagnetism and, 400–403, 401

seismic waves to explore, 384–387, 384–388

temperature of, 390–391, 391, 394

three-dimensional structure and, 394, 395, 396

Intermediate igneous rocks, 96

Internal heat engines, 13, 13

Intraplate earthquakes, 364

Intraplate volcanism, 331–334, 332–334

Intrusions, igneous, 102–105, 102–105

Intrusive igneous rocks, 76, 76, 93, 94

Ionic bonds, 61, 70

Ions

calcium, 122

carbonate, 67, 67

explanation of, 61

mineral color and, 72

in rock-forming minerals, 62

silicate, 65, 66

sodium, 122

IPCC. See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

Iridium, 303

Iron, in core, 12

Iron formations, 144

Iron oxides, 144, 235, 442

Island arcs

accretion and, 264, 265

continental growth and, 263

explanation of, 37

Islands, barrier, 568

Isochron map, 43, 44

Isochrons, 43, 44

Isograds, 159–160, 160

Isolated tetrahedra, 65, 66

Isostasy, 388, 393, 393, 404–405, 599

Isostasy principle, 404–405

Isotherm, 151

Isotopes

carbon, 298, 310

explanation of, 59, 310

radioactive, 208

Isotopic dating

absolute ages and, 210–211

of Cambrian fossils, 303

explanation of, 208

of glaciers, 607

major elements used in, 209t

of meteorites, 224

methods for, 209, 216–218, 217

of rock samples from Moon, 230–231

Isotropic clocks

measuring absolute time with, 207–209

tectonic age and, 261

Isthmus of Panama, 45

Ivanpah solar energy generating system, 658, 658

Jack Hills (Australia), 211, 211

Jarosite, 244

Jefferson, Thomas, 499

Joekulgikvisl River, 502

Johnston, David A., 338

JOIDES Resolution, 41, 213

Joints

explanation of, 183, 183

weathering and, 443

Juan de Fuca Plate

explanation of, 31

location of, 31–32

North American Cordillera and, 258, 259

subduction of, 371

volcanoes and, 38

Jupiter, 224, 229

Jurassic period, 206

Juvinas meteorite, 217

Kaibab Limestone, 204

Kalahari Desert, 540

Kames, 604

Kant, Immanuel, 222

Kaolinite, 67, 438, 439

Karst topography, 490, 490, 491

Keels. See Cratonic keels

Kenya aquifer, 487

Kerguelen Plateau, 333

Kettles, 605

Kilauea volcano, 315, 316, 335

Kimberlite, 155, 324

Kimberlite pipes, 277, 277, 324

Klarälven River, 516

Kobe earthquake, 365

Komatiite, 273

Krafft, Katia, 320, 320

Krafft, Maurice, 320

Krakatau volcano, 412

Kudzu, 285

Kyanite, 76t

I-11

Laboratory experiments

on crystallization, 92

on deformation, 175–176, 176

on fractional crystallization, 99–100

on melting, 97–98

at metamorphic pressures, 162–163

rock magnetism and, 17

Lagoons, 137, 139

Lahars, 335, 336, 458

Lake Baikal, 522

Lakes. See also specific lakes

environments in, 124

formation of, 522

Lambert Glacier, 597

Lamberton, William, 279

Laminar flow, 509, 510, 510

Landers earthquake, 365

Landforms

explanation of, 621

mountains and hills as, 621, 621–622, 622

plateaus as, 622, 623, 624, 625, 625

scale of, 621

stream valleys as, 623, 625

structurally controlled cliffs as, 626, 628

structurally controlled ridges and valleys as, 626, 626, 627

Landscape development models, 630–632, 633, 634–636

Landscapes

absolute dating of, 636t

desert, 544–546

geosystems and, 626–630

glacial, 598, 600–602, 600–606, 603t, 604, 605

overview of, 617

precipitation and, 473

topography, elevation, and relief and, 618–621, 618–621

Landslides

from earthquakes, 367, 453

from hurricanes, 449

as mass movements, 453, 462

La Niña, 417

L’Aquila earthquake, 376, 376–377

Large igneous provinces, 333, 333–334

Larochelle, A., 39

Larsen Ice Shelf, 598, 598

Late Heavy Bombardment, 231

Lateral moraine, 603t

Laurasia, 44

Laurentia, 267, 269, 271

Lavas

andesitic, 317, 317–318

basaltic, 315, 315–317, 316

composition of, 315

explanation of, 92, 93

layers of, 39

mantle plumes and, 50

meanders of, 501

rhyolitic, 318, 318

from vents in oceans, 329

Lawrence, George, 348

Lead pollution, 490

Left-lateral faults, 177

Lehmann, Inge, 12

Levees, natural, 503, 503

Lewis, Meriwether, 499

Life, evolution of, 19–21

Life Finder (spacecraft), 248

Light waves, 384

Lignite, 653–654

Limbs, of fold, 180

Limestone

calcite in, 67, 67, 78

formation of, 58, 140

groundwater in, 488, 492

porosity of, 478

as sedimentary rock, 115, 136

slope stability of, 451

Liquefaction, from earthquakes, 367

Liquified natural gas (LNG), 653

Listric faults, 185

Lithic sandstones, 134

Lithification, 77, 132

Lithosphere

climate system and, 411–412

conduction through, 391

convergence and oceanic vs. continental, 37

cratonic keels and, 276

explanation of, 14, 16, 27

interactions between hydrosphere and, 328

magma in, 588

plates of, 34, 348

plate tectonics and, 31, 45, 48, 48

volcanism in, 412

Lithosphere-atmosphere gas exchange, 427

Liuzhou, China, 506

Loess, 538–540

Loma Prieta earthquake, 365, 367

London, England, windstorm in, 529

Long Island, groundwater on, 488

Longitudinal dunes, 539

Longitudinal profiles, 519, 520

Longshore current, 556, 565

Longshore drift, 556, 565

Long-term forecasting, earthquake, 375

Lower mantle, 390. See also Mantle

Low-grade metamorphic rock, 150

Low-velocity zone, 389

Lunar highlands, 230, 230

Lunar maria, 230, 230–231

Luray Caverns, Virginia, 488

Luster, 71–72, 72, 74t

Lyell, Charles, 7, 195

Mafic minerals

explanation of, 94–95, 95t

melting temperature for, 97, 97

in ultramafic rocks, 97

Mafic rocks, 96–97

Magellan (spacecraft), 233, 233–235

Magma

from asthenosphere, 314

composition of, 110–111

crystallization in, 63, 112–113

decompression melting and, 108, 109

explanation of, 36, 63, 314, 314–315

formation of, 97–99, 105, 329

igneous rocks and, 76, 76t

mantle plumes and, 111

melting and composition of, 101

subduction zones and, 108–111, 110

Magma chambers, 99, 101, 102, 110, 112

Magma ocean, 225

Magmatic addition, 262–263

Magmatic differentiation

complexities of, 101, 102

explanation of, 99, 262

fractional crystallization and, 99–101, 100

Magnesium, 13, 67

Magnetic anomalies

explanation of, 39

patterns of, 39, 41

seafloor and, 39, 40, 41

Magnetic chrons, 39

Magnetic fields

biosphere and, 402–403, 403

complexity of, 396, 398, 398–399, 399, 400

dipole, 396

explanation of, 17, 18

nondipole, 398

Magnetic reversals, 17–18, 39, 41, 399, 400

Magnetic subchrons, 39

Magnetic time scale, 39

Magnetite

density of, 73

depositional remanent magnetization and, 401

indirect precipitation of, 293, 293

Magnitude

explanation of, 357, 359

frequency and, 359–360

moment, 359

Richter, 357, 359

Maiandros River, 501

Mainshock, 351

Mammals, evolution of modern, 305

Mammoth Cave, 488

Manganese nodules, 581

Mantle

composition of, 12, 12, 227, 388–390, 389

deep, 14

explanation of, 10, 11

peridotite in, 107

I-12

seismic data on, 388–390, 389

three-dimensional model of, 394, 395

Mantle convection

explanation of, 16, 16–17, 45

history of, 273

plate tectonics and, 45, 48, 48–51, 49

Mantle plumes

explanation of, 49, 49–50, 332

as magma factories, 111

magma production and, 105

mass extinctions and, 50–51

Maps, geologic, 173, 173–175, 174

Marble Canyon, 198

Marbles, 152, 158

Marcellus Formation, 135, 135

Mariana Islands, as island arc, 34

Marianas Trench, as convergent boundary, 34

Marine evaporites, 140–141, 141

Mariner missions (spacecraft), 231–232, 238–239

Marine sedimentary environments, 124, 125, 126

Mars

atmosphere of, 308

characteristics of, 228, 228–229, 235–236

cross-bedding on, 538

dust storms on, 238, 238, 533, 533

environmental evolution of, 243–245, 244

exploration of, 221, 222, 237–245, 238–244, 247, 249–250, 307, 308

habitable environment on, 308, 308

liquid water on, 222

sulfates on, 68

surface of, 230

as terrestrial planet, 224

topography of, 235, 235

Mars Exploration Rovers (spacecraft), 237, 240–243, 242, 245, 247, 306–308, 533

Mars Express (spacecraft), 237, 238

Mars Global Surveyor (spacecraft), 239–241

Mars Odyssey (spacecraft), 238, 241

Mars Polar Lander (spacecraft), 243

Mars Reconnaisance Orbiter (spacecraft), 237–238, 243

Mars Science Laboratory (spacecraft), 240–243, 307

Mass, of ore, 87

Mass extinctions

asteroids and, 236, 303–304

causes of, 20

Cretaceous-Tertiary, 303

of dinosaurs, 303–304

effects of, 21

explanation of, 19–20, 202, 206

geologic time scale and, 202, 206

mantle plumes and, 50–51

Paleocene-Eocene, 304–306, 305

Permian, 306, 344

Phanerozoic eon and, 300–301

Siberian Traps and, 343–344

Mass movements

classification of, 453, 454

explanation of, 448–449, 453, 454, 455, 455

factors that influence, 450t

human activities that promote or trigger, 462, 462

natural causes of, 461, 461–462

observation of, 463–464

of rock, 455–456, 456

triggers of, 452–453, 453

of unconsolidated material, 456–460, 457–460

Mass spectrometer, 216, 217

Mass wasting. See also Erosion; Mass movements

explanation of, 326

factors influencing, 449

in Southern California, 447–448

Mathews, D. H., 39

Matter, structure of, 59, 59–61, 60

McPhee, John, 7

Meanders, 501, 501–502, 502

Medial moraine, 603t

Mediterranean Sea, 552

Medium-term forecasting, 376–378

Megathrusts, earthquakes on, 185–186, 367, 368

Mélange, 163, 164

Melting

decompression, 98, 107, 109

fluid-induced, 98, 109, 110

partial, 98

rock, 97, 97–98

water and, 98

Mercalli, Giuseppe, 360

Mercury (planet)

characteristics of, 228, 228, 232, 233

formation of, 224

surface of, 230, 232, 232

Mesas, 623, 623

Mesopotamia, 506

Mesopotamian Basin, 123

Mesosaurus (reptile), 28–29, 29

Mesozoic era, 206, 210

Messenger (spacecraft), 232–233

Metabolism, 286

Metallic bonds, 61

Metallic luster, 72, 72t

Metallic ores

explanation of, 82, 83

formation of, 112–113, 153

Metamorphic facies, 161–162, 162

Metamorphic grade, 150, 160–161

Metamorphic P-T paths, 162–163

Metamorphic rocks

classification of, 159t

common minerals of, 76t, 79

contact metamorphism and, 79

eclogites as, 155

explanation of, 74, 75, 76, 78, 150

formation of, 150–154, 150–155

high-grade, 150

low-grade, 150

plate tectonics and, 151–152, 162–166, 164, 165

porosity of, 478

regional metamorphism and, 78–79

texture of, 155–159, 156–158, 159t

Metamorphism. See also Deformation

causes of, 150–153

continent-continent collision and, 165–166

as dynamic process, 149

exhumation and, 166

explanation of, 78, 78–79

intensity of, 155, 157

ocean-continent convergence and, 163–165, 164

plate tectonics and, 162–166, 164, 165

pressure-temperature paths and, 162–165

regional, 159–162

role of fluids in, 153

role of pressure in, 152, 152–153, 162–163

role of temperature in, 151, 151–152, 162–163

subduction-related, 164, 164–165

types of, 153–155

Meteor Crater (Arizona), 231

Meteoric water, 477, 493

Meteorites

composition of, 10, 224–225

Earth’s composition and, 10, 11

explanation of, 224

impact of, 236, 237t

isotopic dating of, 224

shock metamorphism and, 155

types of, 11

Meteorology, 6

Methane. See also Natural gas

in atmosphere, 409

deposits of, 306

global warming and, 305, 660, 660, 661, 665

natural gas and, 653

Micas

cleavage in, 70, 70

in igneous rocks, 76t, 95t

in metamorphic rocks, 76t, 153

structure of, 66, 67

Michigan Basin

epeirogeny and, 272

sediment in, 182, 182

Microbial decomposers, 293

Microbial mats, 293, 294–295

Microbial respiration, 292–293

I-13

Microfossils, 290, 299

Microorganisms

abundance and diversity of, 289–291, 290, 291, 291t

biogeochemical cycles and, 294, 295

in deep aquifers, 494

explanation of, 288

in groundwater, 490–491

mineral interactions with, 292–296, 293–296

uses of, 288

Mid-Atlantic Ridge

basaltic eruptions at, 330

as divergent plate boundary, 36, 36

explanation of, 29, 30, 39

magnetic anomalies near, 40

profile of, 576, 576

spreading center on, 36

spreading rate at, 44

Mid-ocean ridges. See also Spreading centers

characteristics of, 578

explanation of, 36

magma formation at, 106, 106

transform-fault boundaries along, 38

Migmatite, 157, 157

Milankovitch cycles

explanation of, 420

glacial cycles and, 420–422, 421

Miller, Stanley, 297, 297, 298

Mineral dissolution, 294

Mineral dust, 532

Mineralogy, 58, 74

Mineral precipitation

examples of, 293, 293, 294

explanation of, 63, 64, 292–293

Mineral resources

explanation of, 81, 81

in hydrothermal solutions, 82–83

in igneous rocks, 83–84, 84

rock cycle and, 81, 82

in sedimentary rocks, 84–85, 85

Minerals. See also Rock-forming minerals; specific minerals

atomic structure of, 61–62

carbonate, 67, 67

characteristics of, 58

chemical bonds and, 61

cleavage of, 70, 70–71, 71

color of, 72, 72–73, 73

crystal habit of, 73, 73

crystallization of, 62, 62–63, 63

density of, 64, 73

explanation of, 58

felsic, 94–96, 95t

formation of, 63–64, 64

fracture of, 71

hardness of, 69–70

in igneous rocks, 76t, 95t, 96

index, 159, 160

luster of, 71–72, 72t

mafic, 94–95, 95t

microorganism interactions with, 292–296, 293–296

oxide, 67, 68

physical properties of, 69–74, 74

relative stability of common, 443t

rock-forming, 64–65, 65t, 66, 67–68, 69, 76t, 78, 442, 443t

silicate, 65, 66, 67

structure of matter and, 59–61

sulfate, 68, 69

sulfide, 67–68, 68

Mines/mining

coal, 654, 655

economics of, 87–88

open-pit, 84

Miocene epoch, 141

Mississippian period. See Carboniferous period

Mississippi River

delta of, 513, 513, 515

as drainage network, 477

floodplains of, 506

loess in valley of, 540

meanders on, 501

sedimentary basins and, 119

sedimentary processes and, 116

sediment transport in, 523

streams feeding to, 476, 515

Modified Mercalli intensity scale, 360, 360t

Moenkopi formation, 204

Mohorovicic (Moho) discontinuity, 11, 12, 388

Mohs, Friedrich, 69

Mohs scale of hardness, 69, 69t, 70

Mojave Desert, 540, 658

Moment magnitude, 359, 359

Mongolia, compression and, 267

Mont Pelée volcano, 320

Mont-Saint-Michel tidal flat, 557

Monument Valley, 623

Moon (Earth)

characteristics of, 228, 228, 229

exploration of, 221

formation of, 19

glacial ice on, 589

surface of, 230, 230

tides and, 556

time scale for, 230–231, 232

Moraines, 603, 603t

Morgan, W. Jason, 51

Morley, L., 39

Mountain building. See Orogeny

Mountains. See also specific mountain ranges

explanation of, 621–622

hills vs., 622

plate tectonics and, 622–623, 629–630

in ranges, 622

Mount Etna volcano, 323

Mount Everest, Earth’s topography and, 9

Mount Fuji volcano, 340

Mount Merapi (Indonesia), 335

Mount Pinatubo volcano (Philippines), 319, 338

Mount Rainer, 337, 337

Mount St. Helens volcano

eruption of, 317, 317, 325

predicting eruption of, 338

Mount Tambura volcano, 412

Mount Unzen volcano, 321

Mud, 135

Mudflows, 457–458, 458

Mudslides, from hurricanes, 449

Mudstones

erosion of, 174

explanation of, 135

Murchison meteorite, 298

Muscovite

cleavage in, 70, 71

structure of, 67

Mylonites, 184, 184

Namacalathus, 302

Namib Desert, 532, 546, 546

National Hurricane Center, 564

National Water Quality Assessment Program, 492

Native elements, 64, 65, 65t

Natural gas. See also Methane; Resources

explanation of, 144, 647, 651

exploration for, 145

extraction of, 651–652, 652

formation of, 647, 647

as fuel, 653

Natural gas reserves, 648

Natural levees, 503, 503

Natural resources. See also Resources

demand for, 642

explanation of, 642, 643

types of, 642, 643

from volcanoes, 339–341

Natural selection, 301, 303

Nazca Plate

as convergent boundary, 35, 37

explanation of, 38–39

Neap tides, 556

Nebulae, 222–224

Nebular hypothesis, 222–223, 224

Negative feedback, 415

Neogene period, 210

Neptune, 224, 229

Neutrons, 59, 59

Nevado de Huascarán debris avalanche, 459, 459

Nevado del Ruiz volcano, 37–38

New Horizons (spacecraft), 229

New Madrid earthquake, 360, 361

New Orleans, Louisiana, 506

I-14

Newspaper Rock, Camyonlands, Utah, 543

Newton, Isaac, 10, 556

Nile River, 503, 506

Nitrogen

in atmosphere, 409

microbial metabolism and, 294

Nitrous oxide, 660, 660, 661

Nome, Alaska, 591–592

Nonconformities, 200

Nondipole magnetic field, 398

Nonrenewable resources, 642

Normal fault, 177, 179, 361

North America

Appalachian fold belt in, 256, 257

coastal plain and continental shelf in, 256–257

drainage basins in, 504, 505

North American cordillera in, 257–259, 258

paleogeographic reconstructions of, 270

stable interior of, 254–256, 255, 256

structure of, 254–259, 254–260

North American Cordillera, 254, 257–259, 258, 263, 266

North American Plate, 31, 34, 35, 39, 258

Northridge earthquake, 365, 366

Nuclear disasters, 656, 656

Nuclear energy, 655–657, 656, 657

Nuclear fusion, 223

Nuclear waste, 657

Nucleus, 59, 59

Numerical climate models, 415, 415

Nutrients, 386

Oblique-slip faults, 177, 178

Obsidian, 94, 319

Ocean acidification, 666

Ocean basins

continents vs., 552

profile of, 580

topographical map of, 572, 573

Ocean-continent convergence, 37–38, 163–165

Ocean currents, effect on deltas, 515

Ocean drilling, 41, 41

Oceanic crust. See also Crust

explanation of, 11, 11

seafloor spreading and, 29–30

sediments in, 552

Ocean-ocean convergence, 36–37

Oceanography, 6

Oceans. See also Seafloor; Seafloor spreading; specific oceans

as chemical mixing vats, 122

coastal processes and, 552–564

connection between, 552

continental margins and, 570–572

exploration of, 551

formation of, 227, 227–228

sediments in, 578–581

shorelines of, 543–570

Offshore, 565

Ogallala aquifer, 486, 486–487

O-horizon, 447

Oil. See also Resources

environmental impact of, 650, 650–651, 651

exploration for, 145–146, 644, 644, 648, 648

in flexural basin, 123

formation of, 647, 647

geologic maps to find, 191–192

production and consumption of, 649, 649–650

Oil reserves

depletion of, 650

distribution of, 648–649, 649

explanation of, 647–648

technologies for recovery of, 648

Oil reservoirs, 647, 648

Oil spills, 650, 650–651, 651

Oil traps, 647, 647–648

Oil wells, 644

Oil window, 647

Old Faithful (geyser), 327

Oldham, Robert, 10

Olivine

composition of, 58, 62

density of, 73

formation of, 63, 112

in mantle, 107

in rocks, 76t, 95t

structure of, 66

Olympus Mons volcano (Mars), 235, 235

Ontong Java Plateau, 333

Opal, 493

Open-pit mines, 84

Open system, 13, 14

Ophiolite suites, 106–107, 108

Opportunity (spacecraft). See Mars Exploration Rovers (spacecraft)

Orange County, groundwater in, 488

Ordovician period, 269

Ore minerals. See also Mines/mining

deposits of, 81, 81

exploration for, 87, 87

grade and mass of, 87, 88

hydrothermal deposits of, 82, 82–83

in igneous rocks, 83–84, 85

Ores

explanation of, 81

metallic, 82, 83

Organic matter, 58

Organic reefs, environment in, 126

Organic sedimentary rocks, 144

Organisms. See also Microorganisms

in ecosystem, 284–288

as producers and consumers, 286t

weathering and, 443

Original horizontality principle, 197

Origin time, 357

Orogens, 260

Orogeny

Alpine-Himalayan, 266, 267, 267, 268

Andean, 266

early, 269, 270, 271

explanation of, 266

Paleozoic, 267, 269

Orthoclase

in igneous rocks, 95

Mohs scale of hardness and, 69t

Otto, Nikolaus, 657

Outcrop

explanation of, 173

on Mars, 244, 244

Outer core. See also Core; Inner core

composition of, 12, 12, 13

explanation of, 12, 14

Outer planets. See Jupiter; Neptune; Pluto; Saturn; Uranus

Outwash, 603

Overthrust structures, 186, 186

Overturned fold, 181, 181

Owens Valley earthquake, 365

Oxbow lake, 501

Oxides

explanation of, 65, 65t

as ore minerals, 81

structure of, 67, 68

Oxygen

in atmosphere, 409

in Earth, 13

evolution of atmospheric, 297, 299–300, 300

respiration and, 293

weathering and, 441–442

Oxygen-16, 419

Oxygen-18, 419

Ozone, 409

Pacific Ocean, profile of, 577, 577–578

Pacific Plate, 34

Pacific Ring of Fire, 30, 31, 329

Pacific Tsunami Warning Center, 373

Pahoehoe, 316, 316

Paleocene epoch, 304–305

Paleocontinents, 44

Paleomagnetic stratigraphy, 213, 401–402

Paleomagnetic time scale, 402

Paleomagnetism, 400–402, 401

Paleontology, 199–200

Paleosols, 447

Paleozoic era, 210, 422

Paleozoic orogeny, 267, 269

Paleozoic sunlight, 644

Palisades intrusion, 99–100, 112

Pangaea

assembly of, 43, 44, 46, 48, 269

breakup of, 29, 44, 47

explanation of, 28, 42

Papua New Guinea tsunami, 373

I-15

Parent atoms, 208, 209, 217, 217

Partial melting, 98

Particle size, 121

Passive margins, 260, 570, 570

Pathfinder (spacecraft), 238

Patterson, Clair, 208

Peat, 144

Pediments, 545, 545–546

Pegmatites, 84, 105

Pelagic sediments, 579, 581

Penck, Walther, 630, 634–636

Perched water tables, 482, 483

Peridotite, 324

in kimberlite pipes, 277

in mantle, 107

Period, wave, 554

Periods (geologic time), 202

Permafrost, 606, 606, 607

Permeability

in crustal rock, 492, 493

explanation of, 479

Permian-Carboniferous glaciation, 609

Permian Kupferschiefer beds (Germany), 85

Permian period, 333

mass extinctions in, 306, 344

Perovskite, 73

Peru-Chile subduction zone, 39

Peru-Chile Trench, 35

Petroleum, 644

Petroleum source rocks, ages of, 206–207, 207

Phanerozoic eon, 19, 211, 290

Phanerozoic orogen, 260

Phase change, 389

Phenocrysts, 94

Philippine Islands, 263

Philippine Plate, 34

Phoenix (spacecraft), 238, 243

Phosphorite, 144

Phosphorus, 288, 289

Photoautotrophs, 305

Photomicrographs, 92

Photosynthesis

carbon dioxide and, 310, 311, 432, 433

the climate system and, 412

explanation of, 287, 287–288

respiration vs, 287–288, 287t

Phreatic eruptions, 318, 318

Phyllites, 156, 157

Physical laws, 4

Physical weathering. See also Weathering

in deserts, 542

erosion and, 444–445, 445, 508

explanation of, 116, 436

processes of, 443–444

Piedmont, 256

Piers, 566

Pillow lavas, 317, 317

Placers, 85

Plagioclase

fractional crystallization and, 101

in igneous rocks, 95, 96

Planetary science, 6

Planetary time scale, 230–231

Planetesimals, 223–224

Planets. See also specific planets

characteristics of, 228

diversity of, 228–229

dwarf, 229

formation of, 223–224, 224

giant outer, 224, 225

terrestrial, 224, 225, 230

Plant growth feedback, 415

Plastic flow, 594, 595

Plateaus, 578, 622, 623

Plate boundaries, 31, 31–38, 36–39. See also Convergent boundaries; Divergent boundaries; Transform-fault boundaries

Plate tectonics. See also Continental drift; Seafloor spreading

Baja California and, 53–54

climate system and, 79, 80, 81, 166, 473, 629–630, 632

continental drift and, 28, 28–29, 44

deformation and, 172

deltas and, 515

deserts and, 541

discovery of, 28–31

earthquakes and, 348

exhumation and, 166

explanation of, 27, 31

grand reconstruction and, 42–45, 43, 46–47

Great Synthesis and, 30–31

igneous processes and, 105–111, 106–110

mantle convection and, 45, 48, 48–51, 49

metamorphic rocks and, 151–152, 162–166, 164, 165

plates and plate boundaries and, 31, 31–38, 36–39

rates and history of plate movements and, 39, 40–42, 41–42

rock cycle and, 79, 80, 81

the scientific method and theory of, 52

seafloor spreading and, 29–30, 30

sedimentary rocks and, 115

volcanism and, 329, 329–334, 330, 332

Plate tectonic system, 14, 16–17

Platforms, 260

Platinum, 83, 112

Platy, 73

Playas, 544, 544

Pleistocene epoch, 213, 417–419, 418, 421–423, 587

Pliocene epoch, 213, 421

Plumes, 327

Plunging fold, 180, 181

Pluto, 229

Plutons, 103

Point bars, 501, 503

Pollution

of beaches, 566, 568

groundwater, 490–491, 491

in lakes, 522

Polymorphs, 63

Porosity

in crustal rock, 492, 493

explanation of, 131

groundwater and, 478–479, 479, 480t

Porphyritic crystals, 94

Porphyroblasts, 158, 158–159

Porphyry, 94

Positive feedback, 415

Potable water, 491–492

Potholes, 508, 509

Precambrian, 204, 207, 210, 301

Precipitation

air temperature and water vapor and, 472, 473

average annual, 476

chemical and biological sedimentation and, 122

ending up as runoff, 475

explanation of, 470

groundwater from atmospheric precipitation, 477

of snow, 591

streams and, 515

Precipitation (mineral). See Mineral precipitation

Predictions

of desertification, 548–549

of earthquakes, 375, 375–378

of floods, 518

of future global warning, 661, 662

of hurricanes, 563–564

of volcano eruptions, 338–339

Press, Frank, 29

Pressure

metamorphism and, 152, 152–153

rock melting and, 98

Principle of faunal succession, 199, 199

Principle of isostasy, 404–405

Principle of original horizontality, 197

Principle of superposition, 197

Principle of uniformitarianism, 7, 8

Probabilities, 518

Prograde paths, 163

Proterozoic, 19, 210–211, 422, 609

Protons, 59, 59

Proust, Marcel, 671

P-T path, 161–162, 164–166

Puget Sound, 556

Pumice, 94, 319

Purple loosestrife, 285

P waves, 355, 356, 357, 362, 384–386, 385, 386

I-16

Pyrite

as ore mineral, 82, 83

as sulfide, 67–68, 68

Pyrite precipitation, 293, 294, 295

Pyroclastic deposits, 319, 319–320, 320

Pyroclastic flows, 320, 321

Pyroclasts, 93, 93, 319

Pyroxenes

cleavage in, 71, 71

in mantle, 107

in rocks, 76t, 95t

structure of, 66

Qori Kalis Glacier, 593

Quads, 645

Quartz

crystal faces in, 62, 63

in igneous rocks, 76t, 95t

as mineral, 58

Mohs scale of hardness and, 69t

as polymorph, 64

structure of, 66, 67, 71

weathering of, 442

Quartz arenites, 134

Quartzites, 158

Radar, 233

Radial drainage, 504

Radiation (electromagnetic). See Solar energy

Radiation balance, 413, 414, 414

Radioactive damping, 415

Radioactive decay, 208, 209, 216

Radioactive isotopes, 208, 208–209, 209t

Radioactive waste, 657

Radioactive wastes, in groundwater, 490

Radioactivity, discovery of, 208

Radiolarians, 581

Radiometric dating. See Dating; Isotopic dating

Radon, 492

Rain shadows, 473, 473

Rainwater

aquifers and, 482

carbon dioxide in, 439

carbonic acid in, 439, 441

in deserts, 540, 543

flow of, 500

stream channels and, 507–509, 507–509

Ramp morphology, 137

Rapids, 508

Recharge

artificial, 488

balance between discharge and, 516

balancing with discharge, 482–484, 484

explanation of, 480

of Ogallala aquifer, 486

Rectangular drainage, 504

Recurrence intervals, 349, 350

Red beds, 300

Red Sea

deformational style in, 184

explanation of, 36

Reefs

Darwin and, 139, 139

evolutionary processes and, 137–138, 139

explanation of, 137

Regional metamorphism. See also Metamorphism

explanation of, 78, 78–79, 153, 154

grade and parent rock composition and, 160–161, 161

metamorphic facies and, 161–162, 162

mineral isograds and, 159–160, 160

Rejuvenation, 258

Relative age. See also Geologic time scale

cross-cutting relationships and, 201–202, 203

explanation of, 196

Relative humidity, 472

Relative plate velocity, 41

Relief, 620

explanation of, 619, 620

Renewable resources, 642

Reserves, 643

Reservoirs, 470

Resources. See also Alternative energy; Energy resources; Fossil fuels; Natural resources; Ore minerals

climate change and, 663t

explanation of, 643

groundwater, 485–488

mineral, 81–85, 81–85

Respiration

the carbon cycle and, 432

explanation of, 288

microbial, 292–293

oxygen for, 293

photosynthesis vs., 287–288, 287t

Resurgent calderas, 323

Reverse fault, 177, 361

Rhine Valley

deformational style in, 184

as divergent boundary, 36

R-horizon, 447

Rhyolite, 95

Rhyolite lavas, 318, 318

Ribbon Canyon (Wyoming), 189, 189

Richards, Mark, 397

Richter, Charles, 357

Richter magnitude scale, 357, 359

Ridges, structurally controlled, 626, 626

Rift basins, 122, 183

Rift valleys

in coastal plain, 256–257

deformational style in, 184, 186

at divergent boundaries, 36, 37

seafloor spreading and, 29

Rimmed shelf morphology, 137

Ring of Fire, Pacific, 30, 31, 329

Rio Tinto (Spain), 291, 292

Rip current, 556

Ripples, 128, 128, 129, 511–512, 512

Risk

hazard vs., 369–370

seismic, 370

Rivers. See also Streams; specific rivers

explanation of, 500

exploration of, 499

recording flow of water in, 525–526

runoff in, 475, 476

water flows in, 477t, 510

Roches moutonnées, 600, 600

Rock avalanches, 456, 456

Rock cycle

explanation of, 79, 80, 81

mineral concentrations and, 81, 82

surface processes in, 116–122, 117–121

weathering and, 436

Rockets, 221. See also Space exploration

Rockfalls, 455, 455

Rock flour, 600

Rock-forming minerals. See also Minerals

carbonates as, 67, 67

explanation of, 64–65, 65t

oxides as, 67, 68

silicates as, 65, 66, 67

stability of, 442, 443t

sulfates as, 68, 69

sulfides, 67–68, 68

Rocknest basin, 145–146

Rocks. See also Deformation; Igneous rocks; Metamorphic rocks; Sedimentary rocks

dating methods for, 209

density of, 10

evidence of life in, 310–311

explanation of, 74, 75

failure of, 348

ice as, 588–590

isotopic age of, 209

mafic, 96–97

mass movements of, 455–456, 456

melting of, 97, 97–98

minerals in, 64–65, 65t, 66, 67–68, 69, 76t

natural zones of weakness in, 444

permeability of, 479, 480t, 492, 493

porosity of, 478–479, 479, 480t, 492, 493

properties of, 74, 75, 76

seafloor, 43

strength of, 348

that break, 443–444

volcanic, 92–94

Rockslides, 455, 455

Rock slopes, 451–452, 452

Rock travertine, 493

Rocky Mountains, 258–259

Rodinia, 44, 46, 267, 271

Ross Ice Shelf, 590

Rubble, 451

Rubidium, 208, 208, 217, 217

I-17

Runoff

explanation of, 470

hydrology of, 475–477, 478

Rutherford, Ernest, 208

Safety factor (Fs) equation, 466

Saffir-Simpson hurricane intensity scale, 559, 560t

Saguaro National Park, 544

Sahara Desert

climate of, 542

droughts in, 473, 474

expansion of, 541

rainfall in, 540

Sahel, 473

Salinity, 122

Saltation, 511, 536

Salt dome trap, 647, 648

Saltwater margin, 484, 485

San Andreas fault

deformation textures in, 184

earthquakes along, 184, 347, 349, 365, 365

as fault system, 187, 187–188, 349

housing tracts near, 372

maps of, 177, 187

plate tectonics and, 53, 53–54

as transform-fault boundary, 35, 38, 38, 258

Sand

on beaches, 565–566

explanation of, 133

mass wasting and, 449–450

mineralogy of, 134

ripples in, 536, 537

sizes and shapes of, 133–134

windblown, 532–533

Sandbars, 520, 568

Sandblasting, 534

Sand budget, 565–566

Sand castles, 452

Sand drift, 537

Sand dunes

in deserts, 532–533

explanation of, 511–512

formation of, 536–538, 537, 538

location of, 535–536

types of, 538, 539

Sand rights, 566

Sandstone

explanation of, 133

groundwater and, 482

mineralogy of, 134, 134

slope stability of, 451

types of, 134, 134

San Fernando earthquake, 364–365, 372

San Francisco earthquake (1906), 348, 349, 351, 369

San Juan River, 501

Satellites

historical background of, 221

seafloor charting by, 575

Saturated zone, 480

Saturation, 63, 442

Saturn

composition of, 224, 229

exploration of, 246

Saudi Arabia, 123

Schistosity, 156

Schists, 79, 156–157, 157

Scientific method

example of, 24

overview of, 4–5

plate tectonics and, 52

Scientific models

explanation of, 5

geologic maps as, 175

Scientific research, 4, 4

Scientists, code of ethics for, 5

SeaBeam (ship), 573

Seafloor. See also Oceanic crust; Plate tectonics

across two oceans, 575–578, 576, 577

age of, 41, 43

explanation of, 29, 30, 552

magnetic anomalies on, 39, 40, 41

main features of, 578

studies of, 572, 573–574, 575

surface ships to probe, 572, 573, 574, 575

topography of, 572, 573–577, 575–578

volcanic island and, 139, 139

Seafloor metamorphism, 153, 154

Seafloor spreading

in Atlantic Ocean, 257

calculating speed of, 54

effects of, 44, 253

explanation of, 39, 107, 108

igneous rock formation and, 106

measurement of, 40, 41

rock cycle and, 79

Sea level

explanation of, 9, 9

regional base levels and, 520

Sea level change

climate change and, 570, 664–665, 665

conclusions related to, 614–615

effects of, 568–570, 569

glaciation and, 606–607

isostasy and, 599

Seamounts, 576, 578

Seawalls, 566, 567

Seawater. See also Oceans

calcium and carbonate minerals in, 122, 137, 138

composition of, 140

evaporation of, 140–141, 141

sodium chloride in, 122, 140

Secular variation, 398

Sedimentary basins

explanation of, 116, 122

flexural, 123

formation of, 122–123, 123

in North America, 255–256, 257

oil and gas resources in, 145

rift, 122

thermal subsidence, 122

transportation to, 119–121, 120

Sedimentary deposits

explanation of, 84–85, 85

floodwaters and, 503, 503

glaciers and, 603–606, 604, 605

Sedimentary environments

continental, 124, 125

explanation of, 124, 125

marine, 124, 125, 126

shoreline, 124, 125

siliciclastic vs. chemical and biological, 126–127, 127

Sedimentary rocks

carbonate, 136–140, 137, 138

chemical and biological, 135–144, 136t, 137–141

classification of, 132–142

evaporite, 140–142, 141

explanation of, 74, 75, 77, 115

formation of, 77, 77–78, 142–143, 171

granite and, 93

minerals in, 76t, 78

organic, 144

plate tectonics and, 115

porosity of, 478

rock cycle and, 116–122, 117–121

siliciclastic, 132–135, 132t, 133–135

Sedimentary sequence, 200

Sedimentary structures

bedding sequences as, 129–130, 130

bioturbation as, 128, 129

cross-bedding as, 127, 128

explanation of, 127

graded bedding as, 127–128

ripples as, 128, 128

Sedimentation. See Deposition

Sediments

bioclastic, 119

biological and chemical, 77, 118, 135–144, 119, 136t, 137–141

burial of, 130, 131

in deserts, 543–544, 544

diagenesis of, 130–132, 131

eolian, 544

erosion and, 117–119, 118t

evaporite, 140–142, 141, 544, 544

explanation of, 77, 115

iron oxide, 144

layers of, 77–78

in oceans, 578–581, 579

organic, 144

pelagic, 579

phosphorite, 144

porosity and permeability of, 478–479, 480t

precipitation and, 122

process to solid rock from, 77

I-18

rock cycle and, 116–122, 117–121

siliceous, 143–144

siliciclastic, 77, 117–118, 132–142, 132t

stream transport of, 509–512, 510–512, 515, 516

terrigenous, 126

Seine River, 506

Seismic hazard

explanation of, 370, 370–372

land-use policy and, 372

Seismic hazard map, 371

Seismicity maps, 362

Seismic profiles, 387

Seismic ray paths, 384–387, 385, 386

Seismic risk, 370

Seismic risk map, 371

Seismic tomography, 394, 395, 396

Seismic waves. See also Waves

earthquakes and, 355

explanation of, 9, 355

to explore near-surface layering, 387, 387–388

exploring earth’s interior with, 384–387, 384–388

focus and, 357

ground deformation and, 358

ray paths of, 384–387, 385, 386

reflected, 387–388

shaking from, 366–367

travel-time curves for, 357

types of, 10, 355, 356, 357, 384

Seismograms, 354

Seismographs, 9–10, 354, 354

Seismometers, 9

Seitz, Gordon, 375

Sequence stratigraphy, 212, 212–213

Sequoia National Forest (California), 152

Settling velocity, 511

Shadow zones, 385, 385

Shaking, from seismic waves, 366–367

Shale gas, 652, 652

Shales

explanation of, 135

exploration for, 145–146

metamorphism of, 160, 161

slope stability of, 451–452

Shark Bay (Australia), 295, 296

Shearing, tectonics, 185, 187, 187–188

Shearing forces, 172

Shearing tectonics, 185

Shear strength, 466

Shear stress, 466

Shear waves, 10–12, 357, 384. See also Seismic waves; S waves

Sheet structures, 67

Shields, 255, 260

Shield volcanoes, 234, 315, 321, 322

Shock metamorphism, 153, 155

Shoemaker, Eugene, 230, 230

Shorelines. See Coastlines

Shoreline sedimentary environments, 124, 125

Short-term prediction, earthquake, 375–376

Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM), 279–280

Siberian Traps, 343–344

Silent earthquakes, 362

Silica. See also Quartz

early uses for, 143–144

in igneous rocks, 94, 95

polymorphs of, 64

structure of, 58

Silicate ions, 62

Silicates

cleavage in, 71

composition of, 62, 94

explanation of, 65, 65t

framework, 66, 67

hardness of, 70

in igneous rocks, 94

as ore minerals, 81

in sedimentary rocks, 78

structures of, 65, 66, 67

weathering of, 438, 439, 440

Siliceous environments, 127

Siliceous ooze, 580–581

Siliceous sediments, 143–144

Siliciclastic sedimentary environments, 126

coarse-grained, 133, 133

fine-crained, 132–136

medium-grained, 133, 133–134

Siliciclastic sediments

classification of, 132–142, 132t

explanation of, 77, 77, 78, 117–118, 132

streams carrying, 511

Silicon

in crystal structures, 62

in Earth, 13

Silicon ion, 65

Sills, 103–104, 104

Silt

explanation of, 135

mass wasting and, 449–450

Siltstone, 135

Single-chain structures

explanation of, 65, 66

in pyroxenes, 71

Sinkhole, 490, 490

Sklodowska Curie, Marie, 208

Slates, 156, 157

Slip face, 537

Slope instability, 465, 465–466

Slope materials, 449–450

Slump, 460, 460

Smith, William, 198–199

Snow. See also Precipitation

explanation of, 470, 592

transformation to ice, 592, 592

Snowball Earth hypothesis, 609, 610, 611

Snow line, 591

Sodium chloride

as chemical compound, 60, 60

crystallization of, 61

in seawater, 122, 140

Sodium ions, 122

Soil profiles, 447

Soils

ancient, 447

explanation of, 445

as geosystems, 446, 446–447

porosity of, 478

types of, 447, 448t

weathering and, 441, 445–447, 446

Sojourner (spacecraft), 238

Solar energy. See also Sun

climate system and, 413, 413

explanation of, 13, 13, 658, 658

Solar forcing, 408

Solar nebula, 223

Solar radiation

explanation of, 413

Milankovitch cycles and, 421

Solar system. See also Planets; specific planets

exoplanets and, 248

origin of, 14, 222–225, 224

small bodies of, 224–225

telescopes for exploration of, 245–246

Solifluction, 456

Solubility, 442

Solutions, 63

Sonar, 572, 575

Sorting, 121

Sound waves, 384

Source beds, 647

South African Plateau, epeirogeny and, 272–273

South American Plate, 35, 37, 38

South Atlantic Ocean, 44

Southern Ocean, 44

Southern Oscillation, 417

Space exploration

historical background of, 221–222

landing spacecrafts and, 249–250

questions addressed by, 223

Specific gravity, 73

Sphalerite, 82, 83

Spinels, 67, 68

Spirit (spacecraft). See Mars Exploration Rovers (spacecraft)

Spit, 568

Splintery fracture, 71

Spreading centers. See also Mid-ocean ridges

explanation of, 36

volcanism at, 330

Spring tides, 556

Stabilization wedges, 669–670, 670

Stalactites, 488, 489

Stalagmites, 488, 488

I-19

Staurolite, in rocks, 76t

Steam technology, 644

Steno, Nicolaus, 197

Stillwater deposit (Montana), 112

Stishovite, 155

Stocks, 103

Stokes’ law, 112–113

Storm surges, hurricane, 561, 561–563

Storm tide, 561

Strain, 348

Strath terraces, 638

Stratification. See Bedding

Stratigraphic succession, 197, 198

Stratigraphic trap, 647, 648

Stratigraphy

chemical, 213

of Colorado Plateau, 204, 205

explanation of, 197

of Mars, 244–245

paleomagnetic, 213

principles of, 197–198

sequence, 212, 212–213

Stratosphere, 408

Stratovolcanoes, 321, 322

Streak, 72, 74t

Streak plate, 72, 72

Streamgauge data, 525–526

Streamlines, 509, 510

Stream power, 623, 624

Streams. See also Rivers

antecedent, 505, 505, 507

base level of, 520, 520, 521

braided, 502, 502–503

channel patterns of, 500–501, 501

current flow and transport sediment in, 509–512, 510–512

deltas and, 513, 513, 514, 515

in deserts, 545

discharge and, 516–518, 517, 518

effect of climate on, 521

effluent, 480

erosion by, 507–509, 507–509, 543, 623, 624, 637–638

explanation of, 500, 500

exploration of, 499, 500

floodplains created by, 503, 503

forms of, 500–505, 501–505, 507, 510

as geosystems, 515–522, 516–522

graded, 521

influent, 480

longitudinal profile of, 519, 520

meanders by, 501, 501–502, 502

recharge in, 480

recording flow of water in, 525–526

runoff in, 475, 476

sediment transport by, 509–512, 510–512

source of, 507–509, 507–509

superposed, 507, 507

water in, 470

Stream valleys, 500, 623, 624, 625

Stress, 348

Striations, 600, 600

Strike, 173, 173

Strike-slip faults

explanation of, 177, 178, 179

fault mechanisms and, 361

Stromatolites, 295–296, 296, 298, 298

Strontium, 208, 208, 217, 217

Structures, sedimentary. See Sedimentary structures

Subbituminous coal, 654

Subduction, 263–264, 552

Subduction-related metamorphism, 164, 164–165

Subduction zones

earthquakes in, 185–186, 347

as magma factories, 108–111, 110

mantle convection and, 45

volcanism at, 330–331

Sublimation, 470

Submarine canyons, 571–572

Subsidence

explanation of, 122

from groundwater pumping, 484

Suess, Eduard, 28

Sulfate ion, 68

Sulfates

explanation of, 65, 65t

structure of, 68, 69, 70

Sulfide ion, 67

Sulfides

acidic water and, 292, 292

explanation of, 65, 65t

as ore minerals, 81–83, 83

structure of, 67–68

Sulfur, microbial metabolism and, 294

Sulfur cycle, 294, 295

Sulfur dioxide, 488

Sumatra earthquake, 347, 364, 373

Sumatra tsunami, 368–369, 369

Sun. See also Solar energy

Earth’s climate and, 13, 15

formation of, 223

ocean tides and, 556

radiation from, 413

wind belts and, 530

Superposed streams, 507, 507

Superposition. See Principle of superposition