Imagine the whirlwind of emotions you would feel if you witnessed a loved one being attacked by a shark. Fear is probably the most obvious, but there are others, including anger toward the shark, disgust at the sight of blood, anxiety about the outcome, gratitude toward those who came to the rescue, and guilt (it should have been me).

Are such feelings common to all people? Some researchers have proposed that there is a set of “biologically given” emotions, which includes anger, fear, disgust, sadness, and happiness (Coan, 2010). These types of feelings are considered basic emotions because people all over the world experience and express them in similar ways; they appear to be innate and have an underlying neural basis (Izard, 1992). The fact that children born deaf and blind have the same types of expressions of emotion (happiness, anger, and so on) suggests the universal nature of such displays (Hess & Thibault, 2009).

It is also noteworthy that unpleasant emotions (fear, anger, disgust, and sadness) have survived throughout our evolutionary history, and are more prevalent than positive emotions such as happiness, surprise, and interest (Ekman, 1992; Forgas, 2008; Izard, 2007). This suggests that negative emotions have “adaptive value”; in other words, they may be useful in dangerous situations, like those that demand a fight-or-flight response (Forgas, 2008).

LO 16 Describe the role the amygdala plays in the experience of fear.

Have you ever wondered what takes place in your brain when you feel afraid? Researchers certainly have. With the help of brain-scanning technologies, they have zeroed in on an almond-shaped structure in the limbic system (Cheng, Knight, Smith, & Helmstetter, 2006; Pape & Pare, 2010). This structure, known as the amygdala, is central to our experience of fear (Davis & Whalen, 2001; Hariri, Tessitore, Mattay, Fera, & Weinberger, 2002). If a person views threatening images, or even looks at an image of a frightened face, the amygdala is activated (Chiao et al., 2008; Laeng et al., 2010).

PATHWAYS TO FEAR What exactly does the amygdala do? When confronted with a fear-provoking situation, the amygdala enables an ultrafast and unconscious response. Sensory information (sights, sounds) entering the thalamus can either go to the cortex for processing, or head straight for the amygdala without stopping at the cortex (LeDoux, 1996, 2000, 2012). The direct path that goes from the thalamus to the amygdala conveys raw information about the threat, enabling your brain and body to respond to danger without your awareness. Like a panic button, the amygdala issues an alert, summoning other parts of the brain that play a role in the experience of fear (for example, the hypothalamus and medulla), which then alert the sympathetic nervous system. A pathway also goes to the pituitary gland, resulting in the secretion of stress hormones (LeDoux, 2012).

The snake-in-the-bed example from earlier in the chapter provides a clear example of an immediate fear response. Visual information about the snake goes directly to the thalamus, and from there to the amygdala, which triggers an alarm reaction. Your heart rate increases and breathing becomes rapid, preparing you to flee the slithery reptile. Meanwhile, information that was sent to the sensory processing centers of the visual cortex results in a visual representation of the snake. Let’s suppose the “snake” is merely a rubber toy planted by a mischievous child. In this case, your cortex sends a message to the amygdala: “False alarm. The snake in the bed is a rubber toy.” The key thing to note is that it takes longer for neural information to go from the thalamus to the cortex than from the thalamus to the amygdala. This explains why one generally needs a moment to calm down: The physiological reaction starts before the false alarm message from the cortex reaches the amygdala (Infographic 9.4).

INFOGRAPHIC 9.4

INFOGRAPHIC 9.4

Credits: T1 weighted MRI image of the brain demonstrates normal cerebral anatomy, Living Art Enterprises/Science Source; Woman, Brand New Images/Getty Images; Snake, Eric Isselee/Shutterstock; Small mouse, Sergii Figurnyi/Shutterstock; Cat with mouse, © Kitchin & Hurst/Agefotostock

EVOLUTION AND FEAR LeDoux (2012) suggested an evolutionary advantage to having direct and indirect routes for processing information about potential threats. The direct route (thalamus to amygdala, causing an emotional reaction) enables us to react quickly to threats for which we are biologically prepared (snakes, spiders, aggressive faces). The other pathway allows us to evaluate more complex threats (such as nuclear weapons, job layoffs) with our cortex, overriding the fast-response pathway when necessary.

The amygdala also plays an important role in the creation of “emotional memories,” which are fairly robust and detailed (Johnson, LeDoux, & Doyère, 2009; LeDoux, 2002). This is useful because we are more likely to survive if we remember threats in our environments. For some people, however, emotional memories cause troublesome fear and anxiety (Chapter 11).

What other evidence points to the evolutionary benefit of fear and other emotions? Research suggests that the biological response patterns accompanying emotions are both innate and universal (they appear to be preprogrammed and shared by all). These patterns are the same irrespective of gender or age, although responses in older adults tend to be less extreme (Levenson, Carstensen, Friesen, & Ekman, 1991).

In the very first chapter of this book, we introduced the field of positive psychology, “the study of positive emotions, positive character traits, and enabling institutions” (Seligman & Steen, 2005, p. 410). Rather than focusing on mental illness and abnormal behavior, positive psychology emphasizes human strengths and virtues. The goal is well-being and fulfillment, and that means “satisfaction” with the past, “hope and optimism” for the future, and “flow and happiness” at the current time (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). Let’s take a moment to explore that flow and happiness of the present.

LO 17 Summarize evidence pointing to the biological basis of happiness.

THE BIOLOGY OF HAPPINESS To what degree do we inherit happiness? Happiness has heritability estimates between 35% and 50%, and as high as 80% in longitudinal studies (Nes, Czajkowski, & Tambs, 2010). In other words, we can explain a high proportion of the variation in happiness, life satisfaction, and well-being by considering genetic make-up, as opposed to environmental factors.

Research suggests that the biological basis of happiness may include a “set point,” similar to the set point for body weight (Bartels et al., 2010; Lyubomirsky, Sheldon, & Schkade, 2005). Happiness tends to fluctuate around a fixed level (this point is the degree of happiness we experience when we are not trying to be happier). As we strive for personal happiness, it is important to recognize the strength of this set point, which is influenced by genes and temperament. But do not lose hope; researchers also suggest it is possible to increase happiness over time (Lyubomirsky et al., 2005).

INCREASING HAPPINESS In general, positive events in our lives only seem to bring temporary happiness (Diener, Lucas, & Scollon, 2006; Mancini, Bonanno, & Clark, 2011). Why is this? We tend to become habituated to new feelings of happiness or a new level of happiness rather quickly. If you win the lottery, get a new job, or buy a beautiful house, you will likely experience an increased level of happiness for a while, but then go back to your baseline, or “set point,” of happiness (Lyubomirsky et al., 2005). Things that feel new and improved or life-changing quickly become mundane, suggesting that happiness will not be found in new possessions or shopping sprees. The implication is that we need to be careful when pursuing happiness as a goal in life, as we don’t want to emphasize obtaining a specific outcome (like moving to a house near the ocean) or acquiring a desired object (Lyubomirsky et al., 2005). Our focus should not be on becoming happier, but rather on being content with what we have (Lyubomirsky, Dickerhoof, Boehm, & Sheldon, 2011).

Apply This

Urban myth, common sense, stereotypes, and our daily experiences in North America all lead us to believe that men and women experience and express their emotions differently, but is this true? Are women really more “emotional” than men? Do men hide their emotions? In a study that set out to examine some of these beliefs, participants were shown pictures of faces expressing emotions such as anger, happiness, and sadness (Barrett & Bliss-Moreau, 2009). Each of the faces was paired with a label stating some situational cause for its emotion (for example, a face showing anger was paired with the phrase “insulted by a stranger”). Then the participants were shown the same images without any label, and asked to state whether the individual depicted was “emotional” or “having a bad day.” Female expressions were more likely to be described as emotional, whereas the male faces were more likely to be labeled as having a bad day. Apparently, the participants assumed that the female emotions stemmed from some internal characteristic (being an “overly emotional female”). Meanwhile, the men’s emotions were presumed to be responses to situations or environments (Chapter 14).

The gender differences suggested by the participants’ beliefs are not necessarily accurate, however. Most psychologists studying this topic suggest that men and women are more similar than different when it comes to experiencing and expressing emotion (Else-Quest, Higgins, Allison, & Morton, 2012). As noted earlier, there are universal facial expressions, and these are similar across gender. But the notion that women are more emotional is a gross overgeneralization at best.

That being said, research has uncovered some interesting gender disparities related to emotion. Some evidence suggests that women tend to feel more guilt, shame, and embarrassment than men (Else-Quest et al., 2012). They also seem to be more adept at identifying the emotion behind a particular face (Hall & Matsumoto, 2004). We don’t know if this results from biological or cultural differences (perhaps women start practicing earlier, and this ability becomes more automatic for them). Women who paid closer attention to eyes, in one study, were able to discern emotional expressions more quickly and correctly than men, suggesting that the eyes are especially important for conveying emotions (Hall, Hutton, & Morgan, 2010). With that thought in mind, take a minute and look into the eyes of Mohamed (in the photograph above). Do you see a look of happiness and tranquility? We certainly do.

Question 1

Question 2

Question 3

1. the cognitive appraisal approach.

2. the cortex.

3. the sympathetic nervous system.

4. gender differences.