Conclusion

Throughout modern history, the development of nation-states has been neither inevitable nor uniform nor peaceful. In the nineteenth century, ambitious politicians, shrewd monarchs, and determined bureaucrats used a variety of methods and policies to transform very different countries into effective nation-states. Nation building was most dramatic in Germany and Italy, where states unified through military force and where people of opposing political opinions ultimately agreed that national unity should be the primary goal. Compelled by military defeat to shake off centuries of tradition, the Austrian and Russian monarchs instituted reforms as a way of keeping their systems in place. The Habsburg Empire became a dual monarchy, an arrangement that gave the Hungarians virtual home rule and raised the level of disunity. Reforms in Russia left the authoritarian monarchy intact and only partially transformed the social order.

After decades of romantic fervor, no-nonsense realism in politics—Realpolitik—became a much touted principle. Realist thinkers such as Darwin and Marx developed theories disturbing to those who maintained an Enlightenment faith in social and political harmony. Realist novels and artworks jarred polite society, and, like the operas of Verdi, portrayed dilemmas of the times. Growing government administrations set policies that were meant to bring order but often brought disorder, including the destruction of entire neighborhoods and violence toward people in far-off lands. In the long term, schooling taught the lower classes to be orderly citizens, and urban renewal ultimately improved cities and public health to complement nation building.

Objections arose to the expanding power of the nation-state. The Indian Rebellion of 1857 against Britain and the Paris Commune of 1871 against the French state were but two examples where violent actions raised difficult questions about nation-building methods. How far should the power of the state extend in both domestic and international affairs? Would nationalism be a force for war or for peace? In the face of state power, would ordinary people have any say in their destiny? As these issues ripened, the next decades saw extraordinary economic advances and an unprecedented surge in Europe’s global power—much of it the result of successes in nation building.