The activities in this section will help you choose and research an issue as well as develop and organize an argument for your position. Your writing in response to many of these activities can be used in a rough draft that you will be able to improve after receiving feedback from your classmates and instructor. Do the activities in any order that makes sense to you (and your instructor), and return to them as needed as you revise.
Choose a controversial issue on which to take a position.
When choosing an issue, keep in mind that the issue must be
controversial — an issue that people disagree about;
arguable — a matter of opinion on which there is no absolute proof or authority;
one that you can research, as necessary, in the time you have; and
one that you care about.
Choosing an issue about which you have special interest or knowledge usually works best. For example, if you are thinking of addressing an issue of national concern, focus on a local or at least a specific aspect of it: For example, instead of addressing censorship in general, write about a local lawmaker’s recent effort to propose a law censoring the Internet, a city council attempt to block access to Internet sites at the public library, or your school board’s ban on certain textbooks.
You may already have an issue in mind. If you do, skip to Test Your Choice: Choosing an Issue. If you do not, the topics that follow, in addition to those in the “Consider possible topics” sections following readings by Bramson, Etzioni, and Solove (all in this chapter), may suggest an issue you can make your own:
Should particular courses, community service, or an internship be a graduation requirement at your high school or college?
Should students attending public colleges be required to pay higher tuition fees if they have been full-
264
Should your large lecture or online courses have frequent (weekly or biweekly) exams instead of only a midterm and final?
Should children raised in this country whose parents entered illegally be given an opportunity to become citizens upon finishing college or serving in the military?
Should the football conference your school (or another school in the area) participates in be allowed to expand?
Should you look primarily for a job that is well paid or for a job that is personally fulfilling or socially responsible?
Should the racial, ethnic, or gender makeup of the police force resemble the makeup of the community it serves?
Should public employees be allowed to unionize and to bargain collectively for improved working conditions, pay, or pensions?
Should the state or federal government provide job training for those who are unemployed but able to work?
Choosing an Issue
First, ask yourself the following questions:
Does the issue matter to me? If not, could I argue convincingly that it ought to be of concern?
Do I know enough about the issue to take a position that I can support effectively, or can I learn what I need to know in the time I have?
Can I frame or reframe the issue in a way that might open readers to my point of view or help them reconsider what’s at stake?
Then get together with two or three other students to take turns trying out your issues with potential readers. Ask group members questions like the following:
What, if anything, do you already know about the issue?
What about the issue (if anything) seems particularly intriguing or important to you?
Do you already hold a position on this issue? If so, how strongly do you hold it? Would you be open to considering other points of view? If you don’t care about the issue, what might convince you that it matters?
Consider these questions and their responses as you plan and draft your argument.
Frame the issue for your readers.
Once you have made a preliminary choice of an issue, consider how you can frame (or reframe) your issue so that readers who support opposing positions will listen to your argument. Consider how the issue has been debated in the past and what your readers are likely to think. Use the following questions and sentence strategies to help you put your ideas in writing.
265
WAYS IN
|
HOW CAN I EXPLORE THE ISSUE? |
WHAT DO MY READERS THINK? |
| To explore the ISSUE, ask yourself questions like these and answer them using the sentence strategies as a jumping- |
To determine what your READERS are likely to think, ask yourself questions like these and answer them using the sentence strategies as a jumping- |
| What groups or notable individuals have shaped the debate on this issue? What positions have they taken? | What values and concerns do my readers and I share regarding the issue? |
|
|
| How has the issue, or people’s opinions about the issue, changed? What makes the issue important now? | What fundamental differences in worldview or experience might keep me and my readers from agreeing? |
|
|
HOW CAN I FRAME THE ISSUE EFFECTIVELY?
Once you have a good idea of how the issue has been debated and what your readers think, use these sentence strategies to FRAME the issue for your readers.
What is the issue, and why should my readers be concerned about it?
Issue X is of concern to all members of group A because _________.
| EXAMPLE | I’m concerned about the high cost of tuition at state colleges like ours because students have to borrow more money to pay for their education than they will be able to earn once they graduate. |
Why are popular approaches or attitudes inappropriate or inadequate?
Although many in the community claim X, I think Y because _________.
266
| EXAMPLE | Some argue that college football players should be paid because of the money the school is earning off players’ labor. I disagree. I think the current system should be maintained because without the money earned from football less lucrative sports programs, like fencing and wrestling, would have to be cut. |
Frame Your Issue
Ask two or three other students to consider the way you have framed your issue.
Presenters. Briefly explain the values and concerns you think are at stake. (The sentence strategies in the Ways In section can help you articulate your position and approach.)
Listeners. Tell the presenter how you respond to this way of framing the issue and why. You may use the language that follows as a model for structuring your response, or use language of your own.
I’m also / not concerned about Issue X because_____.
I agree / disagree with you about Issue X because_____.
Formulate a working thesis stating your position.
Try drafting a working thesis statement now. (If you prefer to conduct research or develop your argument before trying to formulate a thesis, skip this activity and return to it when you’re ready.) As you develop your argument, rework your assertion to make it a compelling thesis statement by making the language clear and straightforward. You may also need to qualify it with words like often, sometimes, or in part. Forecast your reasons.
WAYS IN
HOW CAN I DEVISE AN ARGUABLE THESIS?
Begin by describing the ISSUE,possibly indicating where others stand on it or what’s at stake, and then stating your POSITION.These sentence strategies may help you get started:
At a recent meeting, many people argued_____. Although I sympathize with their point of view, this is ultimately a question of_____, not_____. Therefore, we must do_____.
This issue is dividing our community. Some people argue X, others contend Y, and still others believe Z. However, it is in all of our interests to do _____ because_____.
Conventional wisdom claims that_____. But I take a different view: I believe because_____.
Develop the reasons supporting your position.
For more idea-
267
The following activities will help you find plausible reasons and evidence for your position. You can do some focused research later to fill in the details, or skip ahead to conduct research now.
WAYS IN
HOW CAN I COME UP WITH REASONS THAT SUPPORT MY POSITION?
Write nonstop for at least five minutes exploring your reasons. Ask yourself questions like these:
How can I show readers that my reasons lead logically to my position (LOGOS)?
How can I convince my readers that I am trustworthy (ETHOS)?
How can I appeal to their feelings (PATHOS)?
At this point, don’t worry about the exact language you will use in your final draft. Just write the reasons you hold your position and the evidence (such as anecdotes, examples, statistics, expert testimony) that supports it. Keep your readers and their values in mind — what would they find most convincing and why?
To brainstorm a list of reasons, try this:
Start by writing your position at the top of the page.
On the left half of the page, list as many potential reasons as you can think of to support your position. (Don’t judge at this point.)
On the right half of the page, make notes about the kinds of evidence you would need to provide to convince readers of each reason and to show how each supports your position.
Research your position.
Do some research to find out how others have argued in support of your position:
To learn more about searching a database or catalog, consult Chapter 21.
Try entering keywords or phrases related to the issue or your position in the search box of an all-
To learn more about finding government documents, consult Chapter 21.
If you think your issue has been dealt with by a government agency, explore the state, local, or tribal sections of USA.gov — the U.S. government’s official Web portal — or visit the Library of Congress page on state government information (www.loc.gov/
268
To learn more about documenting sources, consult Chapter 24 or Chapter 25.
Remember to bookmark promising sites and to record the URL and information you will need to cite and document any sources or visuals you use.
Use sources to reinforce your credibility.
How you represent your sources can quickly establish your credibility (ethos) — or the reverse. For example, by briefly describing the author’s credentials the first time you summarize, paraphrase, or quote from a source, you establish the source’s authority and demonstrate that you have selected sources appropriately:
Signal phrase and author’s credentials
Source summary
In-
Martin Rablovsky, a former sports editor for The New York Times, says that in all his years of watching young children play organized sports, he has noticed very few of them smiling . “I’ve seen children enjoying a spontaneous pre-
Quotations can also reinforce the accuracy of your summary or paraphrase and establish your fairness to opposing points of view. In the following sentence, Jessica Statsky demonstrates her fairness by quoting from the Web site of the Little League, a well-
Statsky’s introduction: Summarizes source
In-
Although the official Little League Web site acknowledges that children do risk in-
In both of these examples from “Children Need to Play, Not Compete” (pars. 5 and 3, respectively), Statsky introduces the source to her readers, explaining the relevance of the source material, including the author’s credentials, for readers rather than leaving them to figure out its relevance for themselves.
Whenever you borrow information from sources, be sure to double-
Source
Injuries seem to be inevitable in any rigorous activity, especially if players are new to the sport and unfamiliar with its demands. But because of the safety precautions taken in Little League, severe injuries such as bone fractures are infrequent. Most injuries are sprains and strains, abrasions and cuts and bruises. The risk of serious injury in Little League Baseball is far less than the risk of riding a skateboard, a bicycle, or even the school bus.
269
For more on integrating language from sources into your own sentences and avoiding plagiarism, see Chapter 23.
In both of the preceding examples, Statsky uses quotation marks to indicate that she is borrowing the words of a source and provides an in-
Identify and respond to your readers’ likely reasons and objections.
The following activity will help you anticipate reasons your readers may use to support their argument or objections they may have. You may want to return to this activity as you do additional research and learn more about the issue and the arguments people make. Return to the section “Research your position” or consult Chapter 21, “Finding Sources and Conducting Field Research.”
WAYS IN
For more logical fallacies see Chapter 19.
HOW CAN I FIGURE OUT WHAT MY READERS WILL BE CONCERNED ABOUT?
List the REASONS you expect your readers to have for their position and the OBJECTIONS (including those based on logical fallacies) you expect them to raise to your argument. How do your VALUES, BELIEFS, and PRIORITIES differ from those of your readers?
Analyze your list of likely REASONS and OBJECTIONS. Which can you refute, and how? Which may you need to concede?
HOW CAN I RESPOND TO READERS’ REASONS AND OBJECTIONS?
Now, choose a REASON or OBJECTION, and try out a response:
Summarize it accurately and fairly. (Do not commit the “straw man” fallacy of knocking down something that no one really takes seriously.)
Decide whether you can refute it, need to concede it, or can refute part and concede part.
Try sentence strategies like these to REFUTE, CONCEDE, or CONCEDE and REFUTE reasons supporting readers’ arguments or their objections to your argument:
To Refute
Reason or Objection Lacks Credible Support
My opponents cite research to support their reason / objection, but the credibility of that research is questionable because_____. In contrast, reliable research by Professor X shows_____.
This reason / objection seems plausible on the surface, but evidence shows______.
270
Readers’ Values and Concerns Are Better Served by Your Position
Some insist_____ without realizing that it would take away a basic right / make things even worse.
X and Y think this issue is about_____. But what is really at stake here is_____.
Reasoning Is Flawed
Proponents object to my argument on the grounds that_____. However, they are confusing results with causes. What I am arguing is_____.
Polls show that most people favor_____, but an opinion’s popularity does not make it true or right.
While most would agree that_____, it does not necessarily follow that_____.
Times Have Changed
One common complaint is . In recent years, however,_____.
To Concede
Accept an Objection Well Taken
To be sure, _____ is true.
Granted, _____ must be taken into consideration.
Qualify on Common Ground
Some people argue that_____. I understand this reservation, and therefore, I think we should_____.
Refocus Your Argument
A common concern about this issue is_____. That’s why my argument focuses on [a different aspect of the issue].
To Concede and Refute
And Instead of Or
I agree that _____ is important, and so is_____.
Yes, But
I agree that _____ is important, but my opponents also need to consider_____.
On the One Hand . . . On the Other Hand
On the one hand, I accept X’s argument that_____, but on the other hand, I still think _____ is ultimately more important because_____.
271
Note: If a reason or an objection seems so damaging that you cannot refute it convincingly or concede it without undermining your own argument, discuss with your instructor how you could modify your position or whether you should choose a new issue to write about. If you do not know enough about readers’ views to anticipate their reasons or likely objections to your argument, do more research.
Create an outline that will organize your argument effectively for your readers.
Whether you have rough notes or a complete draft, making an outline of what you have written can help you organize the essay effectively for your audience. Compare the possible outlines that follow to see how you might organize your essay depending on whether your readers primarily agree or disagree with you.
| Readers Primarily Agree with You | Readers Primarily Disagree with You |
| Strengthen their convictions by organizing your argument around a series of reasons backed by supporting evidence or by refuting opposing arguments point by point: | Begin by emphasizing common ground, and make a concession to show that you have considered the opposing position carefully and with an open mind: |
| I. Presentation of the issue | I. Presentation of the issue: Reframe the issue in terms of common values |
| II. Thesis statement: A direct statement of your position | II. Concession: Acknowledge the wisdom of an aspect of the opposing position |
| III. Your most plausible reasons and evidence | III. Thesis statement: A direct statement of your position, qualified as necessary |
| IV. Concession or refutation of opposing reasons or objections to your argument | IV. Your most plausible reasons and evidence |
| V. Conclusion: Reaffirmation of your position | V. Conclusion: Reiteration of shared values |
For more on outlining, see Chapter 11.
Whatever organizational strategy you adopt, do not hesitate to change your outline as necessary while drafting and revising. For instance, you might find it more effective to hold back on presenting your own position until you have discussed unacceptable alternatives. Or you might find a more powerful way to order the reasons for supporting your position. The purpose of an outline is to identify the basic components of your argument and to help you organize them effectively, not to lock you into a particular structure.
Consider document design.
272
Think about whether visual or audio elements — photographs, graphics, snippets of interviews with experts — would strengthen your position argument. If you can recall position arguments you’ve read in newspapers (op-
Note: Be sure to cite the source of visual or audio elements you didn’t create, and get permission from the source if your essay is going to be published on a Web site that will be accessible outside of your class or college.
Consider also whether your readers might benefit from design features such as headings, bulleted or numbered lists, or other typographic elements that can make your argument easier to follow.
Write the opening sentences.
Review what you have already written to see if you have something that would help you frame or reframe the issue for your readers while also grabbing their attention:
Begin with statistics that would help readers grasp the importance of your topic:
“Organized sports for young people have become an institution in North America,” reports sports journalist Steve Silverman, attracting more than 44 million youngsters according to a recent survey by the National Council of Youth Sports (“History”). (Statsky, par. 1)
Use a personal anecdote to make the issue tangible or appeal to readers’ emotions:
Let me tell you a little about Matthew. . . .
Start with a surprising statement to capture readers’ attention:
McDonald’s is bad for your kids. (Etzioni, par. 1)
Use a hypothetical quotation to indicate how people typically think about the issue:
When the government gathers or analyzes personal information, many people say they’re not worried. “I’ve got nothing to hide,” they declare. (Solove, par. 1)
Draft your position argument.
By this point, you have done a lot of writing to
devise a focused, well-
frame your issue so that readers will be open to your argument
support your position with reasons and evidence your readers will find persuasive
refute or concede alternative viewpoints on the issue
organize your ideas to make them clear, logical, and effective for readers
273
Now stitch that material together to create a draft. The next two parts of this Guide to Writing will help you evaluate and improve that draft.