GUIDE TO READING
Analyzing Proposals
As you read the selections in this chapter, you will see how different writers argue for a solution:
Patrick O’Malley argues for more low-
stakes quizzes. Naomi Rose proposes that marine theme parks create orca sanctuaries.
Eric Posner argues for an “altruism exchange” to motivate kidney donors.
Kelly D. Brownell and Thomas R. Frieden propose raising taxes on sugary soft drinks as a way to stem the “obesity epidemic.”
Analyzing how these writers define their problems, argue for their solutions, respond to opposing views, and organize their writing will help you see how you can use these techniques to make your own proposals clear and compelling for your readers.
Determine the writer’s purpose and audience.
When reading the proposals that follow, ask yourself questions like these:
What seems to be the writer’s purpose (or multiple purposes)?
to convince readers that the problem truly exists and needs immediate action?
to persuade readers that the writer’s proposed solution is better than alternative solutions?
to rekindle readers’ interest in a long-
standing problem?
What does the writer assume about the audience?
that readers will be unaware of the problem?
that they will recognize the existence of the problem but fail to take it seriously?
that they will think the problem has already been solved?
that they will prefer an alternative solution?
Assess the genre’s basic features.
Basic Features
A Focused, Well-
A Well-
An Effective Response to Objections and Alternative Solutions
A Clear, Logical Explanation
As you read the proposals in this chapter, consider how different authors incorporate the basic features of the genre. The examples that follow are taken from the reading selections that appear later in this Guide to Reading.
A FOCUSED, WELL-
Read first to see how the writer defines or frames the problem. Framing a problem is a way of preparing readers for the proposed solution by focusing on the aspect of the problem the proposal tries to solve. In “More Testing, More Learning,” for example, student Patrick O’Malley frames the problem in terms of the detrimental effects of high-
Determine, how (and how well) the writer frames the problem, for example,
by recounting anecdotes or constructing scenarios to show how the problem affects people:
| EXAMPLE | It’s late at night. The final’s tomorrow. (O’Malley, par. 1) |
by giving examples to make the problem less abstract:
| EXAMPLE | For example, research by Karpicke and Blunt (2011) published in Science found that testing was more effective than other, more traditional methods of studying both for comprehension and for analysis. (O’Malley, par. 4) |
by listing the negative effects of the problem:
Effect
Transition
Cause
| EXAMPLE | The latest data (Rose, 2011) show that orcas are more than three times as likely to die at any age in captivity as they are in the wild. This . . . is probably the result of several factors. . . . Second, they are in artificial and often incompatible social groups.This contributes to chronic stress, which can depress the immune system and leave captive orcas susceptible to infections they would normally fight off in the wild.. . . These factors boil down simply to this: Captivity kills orcas. (Rose, par. 2) |
Consider also how the writer uses research studies and statistics to demonstrate the severity of the problem. Look for source material and notice whether the writer emphasizes the credibility of the research by including the expert’s name and credentials or by identifying the publication in which the study appeared at the beginning of the sentence in which the study is mentioned:
Emphasizes credibility
Dr. X at University of Y has found that _________.
A study published in Journal X shows that _________.
| EXAMPLE | A 2006 study reported in the journal Psychological Science concluded that “taking repeated tests . . . leads to better . . . retention” . . . according to the study’s coauthors, Henry L. Roediger and Jeffrey Karpicke (ScienceWatch.com, 2008). (O’Malley, par. 4) |
Alternatively, the writer may emphasize the data by putting the results of the study up front and identifying the source later in the sentence or in the parenthetical-
Emphasizes data
_________ percent of group X believe/work/struggle_________ .
| EXAMPLE | Very few captive orcas make it to midlife (approximately 30 years for males and 45 for females) and not one out of more than 200 held in captivity has ever come close to old age (60 for males, 80 for females) (Killer Whale). (Rose, par. 3) |
In contexts where sources are not normally cited (such as newspapers and certain Web sites) or where the information is widely available, the writer may cite statistics without indicating a specific source:
Research findings show that ________ (source).
| EXAMPLE | More than 100,000 people languish on the waitlist for kidneys, thousands of them dying before they receive a transplant. In 2012, almost 35,000 people joined the waitlist, while only 17,000 received transplants. (Posner, par. 1) |
In academic writing the sources of such statistics must be cited.
A WELL-
To argue convincingly for a solution to a problem, writers need to make clear exactly what is being proposed and offer supporting reasons and evidence showing that the proposed solution
will help solve the problem;
can be implemented;
is worth the expense, time, and effort to do so.
Read first to find the proposed solution, usually declared in a thesis statement early in the essay. Typically, the thesis describes the proposed solution briefly and indicates how it would solve the problem, as in this example, which contrasts the problem’s disadvantages with the solution’s benefits:
Problem and its disadvantages
Thesis proposing solution and its benefits
So, not only do high-
Then check to see how the writer presents the supporting reasons and evidence, and consider how compelling the argument is likely to be, given the writer’s purpose and audience. The following sentence strategies and accompanying examples suggest the kinds of reasons and evidence proposal writers often employ to present their argument, as well as the writing strategies they represent:
The proposed solution would reduce or eliminate a major cause of the problem and would (or could) have beneficial effects:
Cause/effect
As research shows, solution X would stop something harmful, change habits, reverse a decline, and would lead to/encourage_______.
| EXAMPLE | A review conducted by Yale University’s Rudd Center for Food Policy and Obesity suggested that . . . a tax on sugared beverages would encourage consumers to switch to more healthful beverages, which would lead to reduced caloric intake and less weight gain. (Brownell and Frieden, par. 3) |
A similar solution has worked elsewhere:
Comparison
Solution X has worked for problem Y, so it could work for this problem as well.
| EXAMPLE | Taxes on tobacco products have been highly effective in reducing consumption, and data indicate that higher prices also reduce soda consumption. (Brownell and Frieden, par. 3) |
The necessary steps to put the solution into practice can be taken without excessive cost or inconvenience:
Process analysis
This solution is easy to implement: first do______ and then do______.
| EXAMPLE | Ideally, a professor would give an in- |
Stakeholders could come together behind the proposal_______.
X and Y are working together on_______.
| EXAMPLE | Merlin Entertainments is pursuing the establishment of the world’s first bottlenose dolphin sanctuary with Whale and Dolphin Conservation (“WDCS,” 2009), a nonprofit environmental group. (Rose, par. 6) |
AN EFFECTIVE RESPONSE TO OBJECTIONS AND ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS
Read to see how the writer responds to readers’ likely objections and to the alternative solutions readers may prefer, for example,
by conceding (accepting) a valid objection and modifying the argument to accommodate it:
To accommodate critic A’s concern, instead of doing________, you could do______.
by refuting (arguing against) criticism — for example, by demonstrating that an objection is without merit or arguing that an alternative solution would be more costly or less likely to solve the problem than the proposed solution:
Some object that the proposed solution would cost too much/cause too much disruption. However, when you take into consideration the fact that inaction would cost even more/cause more disruption than implementing solution B, you have to conclude that_____.
Although X and Y prefer approach A, solution B would be less expensive/easier to implement because_____.
Here are a few examples showing how the proposals in this chapter refute objections or alternative solutions. Notice that proposal writers often introduce the refutation with a transition that indicates contrast, such as but, although, nevertheless, or however:
| EXAMPLES |
This system might run afoul of NOTA, but if so, Congress could easily change the law to make it legal, as it has done before. (Posner, par. 12) Some believe that . . . From the student’s perspective, however, . . . (O’Malley, par. 9) Contrasts alternative and proposed solutions Some argue that . . . , but several considerations support. . . . |
by conceding and then refuting (or the concession-
refutation move):
Yes, this solution might result in Problem X , but X can be overcome/avoided by_____.
| EXAMPLE | If weekly exams still seem too time- |
To learn more about constructing arguments, see Chapter 19.
When reading a proposal, consider whether the writer presents others’ views fairly and accurately and whether the writer’s rebuttal is likely to be convincing to readers. Pay special attention to the writer’s tone in responding to other views, noting any place the tone seems sarcastic or dismissive and considering whether such a tone would be effective given the writer’s purpose and audience.
A CLEAR, LOGICAL ORGANIZATION
For more about writing a thesis statement and topic sentences, see Chapter 13.
Look for cues or signposts that help readers identify the parts of the proposal. Identify the topic and find the thesis, which in a proposal asserts the solution. Look also for topic sentences, particularly those that announce the parts of the proposal argument. Notice also any transitions and how they function. For example, all of the transitions in the following topic sentences (another, moreover, still, and furthermore) indicate items in a list. Other transitions you can expect in proposals signal causes or effects (because, as a result), exceptions (but), concessions (although), refutations (however), emphasis (more important), conclusions (then, therefore), and enumerations (first, second). Here are the beginnings of several topic sentences from O’Malley’s essay:
The main reason professors should give frequent exams is that . . . (par. 4)
Transitions
Another, closely related argument in favor of multiple exams is that . . . (par. 6)
Moreover, professors object to frequent exams because . . . (par. 10)
Still another solution might be to . . . (par. 12)
Furthermore, professors could . . . (par. 13)
Finally, if headings or visuals (such as flowcharts, graphs, tables, photographs, or cartoons) are included, determine how they contribute. Notice whether visuals are referred to in the text and whether they have titles or captions.