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Writing a Draft: Invention, Research, Planning, and Composing

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The activities in this section will help you choose and research a problem as well as develop and organize an argument for your proposed solution. Your writing in response to many of these activities can be used in a rough draft that you will be able to improve after receiving feedback from your classmates and instructor. Do the activities in any order that makes sense to you (and your instructor), and return to them as needed as you revise.

Choose a problem for which you can propose a solution.

When choosing a problem, keep in mind that it must be

important to you and of concern to your readers;
solvable, at least in part;
one that you can research sufficiently in the time you have.

Choosing a problem affecting a group to which you belong (for example, as a classmate, teammate, participant in an online game site, or garage band member) or a place at which you have worked (a coffee shop, community pool, or radio station) gives you an advantage: You can write as an expert. You know the history of the problem, you know who to interview, and perhaps you have already thought about possible solutions. Moreover, you know who to address and how to persuade that audience to take action on your proposed solution.

If you already have a problem and possible solution(s) in mind, skip to Frame the Problem for Your Readers on the facing page. If you need to find a problem, consider the possible topics following the readings and the suggestions here.

	Problems	Possible Solutions
School	Can’t get into required courses	Make them large lecture courses. Make them online or hybrid courses. Give priority to majors.
Community	No safe place for children to play	Use school yards for after-school sports. Get high school students or senior citizens to tutor kids. Make pocket parks for neighborhood play. Offer programs for kids at branch libraries.
Work	Inadequate training for new staff	Make a training video or Web site. Assign experienced workers to mentor trainees (for bonus pay).

To learn more about conducting surveys and interviews, consult Chapter 21. For advice on listing, cubing, and free-writing, see Chapter 11.

Frame the problem for your readers.

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Once you have made a preliminary choice of a problem, consider what you know about it, what research will help you explore what others think about it, and how you can interest your readers in solving it. Then determine how you can frame or reframe it in a way that appeals to readers’ values and concerns. Use the questions and sentence strategies that follow as a jumping-off point; you can make them your own as you revise later.

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WHAT IS THE PROBLEM?

WHY SHOULD READERS CARE?

What do I already know about the problem?

BRAINSTORM a list: Spend 10 minutes listing everything you know about the problem. Write quickly, leaving judgment aside for the moment. After the 10 minutes are up, you can review your list and highlight or star the most promising information.

Use CUBING: Probe the problem from a variety of perspectives:

Describe the problem.
Compare the problem to other, similar problems, or contrast it with other, related problems.
Connect the problem to other problems in your experience.
Analyze the problem to identify its parts, its causes, or its effects.
Apply the problem to a real-life situation.

FREEWRITE (write without stopping) for 5 or 10 minutes about the problem. Don’t stop to reflect or consider; if you hit a roadblock, just keep coming back to the problem. At the end of the specified time, review your writing and highlight or underline promising ideas.

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What do others think about the problem?

Conduct SURVEYS:

Talk to a variety of students at your school (your friends and others).
Discuss the problem with neighbors or survey shoppers at a local mall.
Discuss the problem with coworkers or people who work at similar jobs.

Conduct INTERVIEWS:

Interview faculty experts.
Discuss the issue with businesspeople in the community.
Interview local officials (members of the city council, the fire chief, the local labor union representative).

What do most of my potential readers already think about the problem?

Many complain about_____ but do nothing because solving it seems too hard/too costly.
Some think ___________is someone else’s responsibility/not that big of a problem.
Others see as a matter of fairness/human decency.

Who suffers from the problem?

Studies have shown that___________mostly affects groups A, B, and C.

EXAMPLE These . . . predators are dangerous to their trainers. But orcas are also directly harmed by being confined in concrete tanks. . . . (Rose, par. 1)

How can I convince readers the problem is real and deserves attention?

Give an EXAMPLE to make the problem-specific:

Recently, ___________has been in the news/in movies/a political issue because of [name event].

EXAMPLE The film Blackfish compellingly describes many of the reasons why keeping orcas in captivity is—and always has been—a bad idea. (Rose, par. 1)

Use a SCENARIO or ANECDOTE to dramatize the problem:

EXAMPLE It’s late at night. The final’s tomorrow. You got a C on the midterm, so this one will make or break you. (O’Malley, par. 1)

Cite STATISTICS to show the severity of the problem:

It has recently been reported that______ percent of group A are [specify problem].

EXAMPLE More than 100,000 people languish on the waitlist for kidneys, thousands of them dying before they receive a transplant. In 2012, almost 35,000 people joined the waitlist, while only 17,000 received transplants.

Every year the waitlist lengthens. NOTA virtually guaranteed this shortage by shutting down an incipient market in kidneys. (Posner, pars. 1–2)

Describe the problem’sNEGATIVE CONSEQUENCES:

According to Professor X, group A is suffering as a result of ___________ [insert quote from expert].

EXAMPLE Sian Beilock, a psychology professor at the University of Chicago, points out that “stressing about doing well on an important exam can backfire, leading students to ‘choke under pressure’ or to score less well than they might otherwise score if the stakes weren’t so high.” (O’Malley, par. 2)

Why should readers care about solving the problem?

We’re all in this together.______ is not a win-lose proposition. If group A loses, we all lose.
If we don’t try to solve ______, no one else will.
Doing nothing will only make_____ worse.
We have a moral responsibility to do something about_______.

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TEST YOUR CHOICE

Defining the Problem

Ask two or three other students to help you develop your plan to frame the problem.

Presenters. Briefly explain how you are thinking of framing or reframing the problem for your audience. Use the following language as a model for presenting your problem, or use language of your own.

I plan to define the problem not as ________ but as ________ /in terms of ________ because I think my readers will share my concerns/values/priorities.

Listeners. Tell the presenter what response this way of framing the problem elicits from you and why. You may also explain how you think other readers might respond. Use the following language as a model for structuring your response, or use your own words.

I’m also/not concerned about X because of ________ , ________ , and ________ .
I agree/disagree that ________ because ________ .

Assess how the problem has been framed, and reframe it for your readers.

Once you have a good idea of what you and your readers think about the problem, consider how others have framed the problem and how you might be able to reframe it for your readers.

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HOW HAS THE PROBLEM BEEN FRAMED?	HOW CAN I REFRAME THE PROBLEM?
Sink or Swim Argument	Teaching Should Not Be Punitive Argument
EXAMPLE Providing tutoring for students who are failing a course is wrong because students should do what they need to do to pass the course or face the consequences. That’s the way the system is supposed to work.	EXAMPLE Providing tutoring for students who are failing a course assumes the purpose of education is learning, not testing for its own sake or punishing those who have not done well.
Don’t Reward Failure Argument	Encourage Success Argument
EXAMPLE Providing tutoring for students who are failing a course is like a welfare system that makes underprepared students dependent and second-class citizens.	EXAMPLE Providing tutoring for students who are failing a course encourages students to work hard and value doing well in school.
322 Reverse Discrimination Argument	Level Playing Ground Argument
EXAMPLE Providing tutoring for students who are failing a course is unfair to the other students who don’t need assistance.	EXAMPLE Providing tutoring for students who are failing a course is a way to make up for inadequacies in previous schooling.
Win-Lose Argument	Win-Win Argument
EXAMPLE Providing tutoring for students who are failing a course ignores the fact that grades should fall on a bell curve — that is, an equal proportion of students should get an F as get an A.	EXAMPLE Providing tutoring for students who are failing a course assumes that it would be a good thing if every student earned an A. Providing tutoring enhances learning.

Develop a possible solution.

The following activities will help you devise a solution and develop an argument to support it. If you have already found a solution, you may want to skip this activity and go directly to the Explain your solution section.

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HOW CAN I SOLVE THIS PROBLEM?

One way to generate ideas is to write steadily for at least five minutes, exploring some of the possible ways of solving the problem. Consider using the following approaches as a jumping-off point:

Adapt a solution that has been tried or proposed for a similar problem.

EXAMPLE

Rose’s proposal for an orca sanctuary is based on a similar proposal for a dolphin sanctuary that is being developed by Merlin Entertainments.

Focus on eliminating a cause or minimizing an effect of the problem.

EXAMPLE

O’Malley’s soltion to stressful high-stakes exams is to eliminate the cause of the stress by inducing instructors to give more frequent low-stakes exams.

See the problem as part of a larger system, and explore solutions to the system.

EXAMPLE

Posner’s solution to the problem of organ waiting lists is to reform the system for compensating donors.

Focus on solving a small part of the problem.

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EXAMPLE

Brownell and Fieden’s solution to obesity is to reduce the consumption of sugared beverages through taxation.

Look at the problem from different points of view.

EXAMPLE

Consider what students, teachers, parents, or administrators might think could be done to help solve the problem.

Think of a specific example of the problem, and consider how you could solve it.

For more idea-generating strategies, see Chapter 11.

EXAMPLE

O’Malley could have focused on solving the problem of high-stakes exams in his biology course.

Explain your solution.

You may not yet know for certain whether you will be able to construct a convincing argument to support your solution, but you should choose a solution that you feel -motivated to pursue. Use the questions and sentence strategies that follow to help you put your ideas in writing. You will likely want to revise what you come up with later, but the questions and sentence strategies below may provide a convenient jumping-off point.

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HOW CAN I EXPLAIN HOW MY SOLUTION WOULD HELP SOLVE THE PROBLEM?	HOW CAN I EXPLAIN THAT MY SOLUTION IS FEASIBLE?
It would eliminate a cause of the problem.	It could be implemented.
Research shows it would reduce_____.	Describe the major stages or steps necessary to carry out your solution.
It has worked elsewhere.	We can afford it.
It works in______, ______, and , as studies evaluating it show.	Explain what it would cost to put the solution into practice.
It would change people’s behavior.	It would not take too much time.
______ would discourage/encourage people to_____.	Create a rough schedule or timeline to show how long it would take to make the necessary arrangements.

Research your proposal.

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You may have already begun researching the problem and familiarizing yourself with alternative solutions that have been offered, or you may have ideas about what you need to research. If you are proposing a solution to a problem about which others have written, use the following research strategies to help you find out what solutions others have proposed or tried. You may also use these strategies to find out how others have defined the problem and demonstrated its seriousness.

For more about searching for information, consult Chapter 21. For more about avoiding plagiarism, see Chapter 23 . For more about documenting sources, consult Chapter 24 (MLA style) or Chapter 25 (APA style).

Enter keywords or phrases related to your solution (or problem) into the search box of an all-purpose database, such as Academic OneFile (InfoTrac) or Academic Search Complete (EBSCOHost), to find relevant articles in magazines and journals; in the database Lexis/Nexis to find articles in newspapers; or in library catalogs to find books and other resources. (Database names may change, and what is available will differ from school to school. Some libraries may even combine all three into one search link on the library’s home page. Ask a librarian if you need help.) Patrick O’Malley could have tried a combination of keywords, such as learning and test anxiety, or variations on his terms (frequent testing, improve retention) to find relevant articles.
Bookmark or keep a record of the URLs of promising sites, and download or copy information you could use in your essay. When available, download PDF files rather than HTML files, because these are likely to include visuals, such as graphs and charts. If you copy and paste relevant information into your notes, be careful to distinguish all material from sources from your own ideas.
Remember to record source information and to cite and document any sources you use, including visuals and interviews.

Develop a response to objections or alternative solutions.

The topics you considered when developing an argument for your solution may be the same topics you need to consider when developing a response to likely criticisms of your proposal — answering possible objections to your solution or alternative solutions readers may prefer. The following sentence strategies may help you start -drafting an effective response.

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HOW CAN I DRAFT A REFUTATION OR CONCESSION?

To draft a REFUTATION, try beginning with sentence strategies like these:

Some people think we can’t afford to do X, but it would only cost $_______ to put my solution in place compared to $_____, the cost of doing nothing/implementing an alternative solution.
Although it might take X months/years to implement this solution, it would actually take longer to implement solution A.

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There are critics who think that only a few people would benefit from solving this problem, but_______ would benefit because_______.
Some may suggest that I favor this solution because I would benefit personally; however, the fact is we would all benefit because_______.
Some may claim that this solution has been tried and hasn’t worked. But research shows that [explain how proposed solution has worked] or my solution differs from past experiments in these important ways:______, _______, and________.

To draft a CONCESSION, try beginning with sentence strategies like these:

I agree with those who claim X/object on X grounds; therefore, instead of , I think we should pursue______.
If________ seems too time-consuming/expensive, let’s try .
Where_______ is a concern, I think_______ [name alternative] should be followed.
Although ___________is the best way to deal with a problem like this, under______ [describe special circumstances], I agree that_______ should be done.

For more on outlining, see Chapter 11.

Create an outline that will organize your proposal effectively for your readers.

Whether you have rough notes or a complete draft, making an outline of what you have written can help you organize your essay effectively for your audience. Compare the possible outlines below to see how you might organize the essay depending on whether your readers agree that a serious problem exists and are open to your solution — or not.

If you are writing primarily for readers who acknowledge that the problem exists and are open to your solution:

If you are writing primarily for readers who do not recognize the problem or are likely to prefer alternative solutions:

Introduce the problem, concluding with a thesis statement asserting your solution.
Demonstrate the problem’s seriousness: Frame the problem in a way that prepares readers for the solution.
Describe the proposed solution: Show what could be done to implement it.
Refute objections.
Conclude: Urge action on your solution.

Reframe the problem: Identify common ground, and acknowledge alternative ways readers might see the problem.
Concede strengths, but emphasize the weaknesses of alternative solution(s) that readers might prefer.
Describe the proposed solution: Give reasons and provide evidence to demonstrate that it is preferable to the alternative(s).
Refute objections.
Conclude: Reiterate shared values.

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Whatever organizational strategy you adopt, do not hesitate to change your outline as necessary while drafting and revising. For instance, you might find it more effective to hold back on presenting your solution until you have discussed unacceptable alternatives. The purpose of an outline is to identify the basic components of your proposal and to help you organize it effectively, not to lock you into a particular -structure.

Write the opening sentences.

Review what you have written to see if you have something that would work to launch your proposal, or try out one or two of these opening strategies:

Begin with an engaging scenario:

It’s late at night. The final’s tomorrow. You got a C on the midterm, so this one will make or break you. Will it be like the midterm? Did you study enough? Did you study the right things? It’s too late to drop the course. So what happens if you fail? No time to worry about that now — you’ve got a ton of notes to go over. (O’Malley, par. 1)

Cite a recent event or film demonstrating the seriousness of the problem:

The film Blackfish compellingly describes many of the reasons why keeping orcas in captivity is — and always has been — a bad idea (Magnolia). (Rose, par. 1)

Use statistics to demonstrate the seriousness of the problem:

Sunday is the thirtieth anniversary of the National Organ Transplant Act, but no one wants to celebrate. U.S. policy on organ transplants — especially as applied to kidneys — is a mess. More than 100,000 people languish on the waitlist for kidneys, thousands of them dying before they receive a transplant. (Posner, par. 1)

Offer a quotation that highlights support for your solution:

Sugar, rum, and tobacco are commodities which are nowhere necessaries of life, which are become objects of almost universal consumption, and which are therefore extremely proper subjects of taxation.

— Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations, 1776 (Brownwell and Frieden, par. 1)

But don’t agonize over the first sentences, because you are likely to discover the best way to begin only after you have written a rough draft.

Draft your proposal.

By this point, you have done a lot of research and writing to

focus and define a problem, and develop a solution to it;
support your solution with reasons and evidence your readers will find persuasive;
refute or concede objections and alternative solutions;
organize your ideas to make them clear, logical, and effective for readers.

Now stitch that material together to create a draft. The next two parts of this Guide to Writing will help you evaluate and improve that draft.