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The activities in this section will help you choose a concept and develop an explanation that will appeal to your readers, using appropriate explanatory strategies as well as photographs, tables, charts, and other illustrations. Do the activities in any order that makes sense to you (and your instructor), and return to them as needed as you revise.
Choose a concept to write about.
List possible concepts you might write about. For the best results, your concept should be one that you
understand well or feel eager to learn more about;
think is important and will interest your readers;
can research sufficiently in the allotted time;
can explain clearly in the length prescribed by your instructor.
Review the Consider Possible Topics activities following “Love: The Right Chemistry” (Toufexis), “Do You Suffer from Decision Fatigue?” (Tierney), and “Shyness: Evolutionary Tactic?” (Cain) and reread notes you made in response to those suggestions. The following list suggests some good concepts:
Biology, nursing, and the physical sciences: morphogenesis, electron transport, phagocytosis, homozygosity, diffusion, mass, energy, gravity, entropy, communicable diseases, epidemiology, toxicology, holistic medicine, pathogen
Business and economics: opportunity cost, elasticity of demand, negative externalities, minimum wage, affirmative action, collective bargaining, robotics, flex time, family leave
Environment: fracking, toxic waste, endangered species, sustainability, climate change
Identity and community: multiculturalism, racism, sexism, social contract, community policing, social Darwinism, identity politics, public space
Literature and cultural studies: irony, semiotics, dystopia, canon, post-
Psychology and sociology: assimilation/accommodation, social cognition, emotional intelligence, the Stroop effect, trauma, theory of mind, deviance, ethnocentrism, social stratification, acculturation, cultural relativism, patriarchy
Management and finance: risk management, leveraged buyout, deregulation, branding, economy of scale, monopoly capitalism, socially conscious investing
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Considering Your Purpose and Audience
To decide whether to proceed with this concept, ask yourself the following questions:
Can I answer my readers’ inevitable “So what?” question and make the concept seem interesting and worth knowing about?
Am I interested in the concept, and can I focus my explanation?
Do I know enough about the concept now, or can I research it in the time I have?
Conduct initial research on the concept.
Start by surveying what you already know about the topic, so you can better determine what gaps you need to fill. The following activities will help you begin putting your ideas into words that you may be able to use as you draft.
WAYS IN
WHAT DO I ALREADY KNOW ABOUT THE CONCEPT?
To determine what you already know, ask yourself questions like these, using the sentence strategies as jumping-
Why is my concept worth writing about?
My concept is important/useful for the study of _______ because _______ [list reasons].
What writing strategies can I use to explain the concept?
My concept can be divided into the following categories: _______, _______, and _______. (Classification)
Examples of my concept include _______, _______, and _______. (Examples)
My concept is a _______ [member of a larger category] that is/does/has these defining characteristics: _______, _______, and _______. (Definition)
Research your concept in three stages:
Gain an overview of the concept.
Identify an aspect of the concept to focus on.
Conduct enough research to learn about this aspect of the concept.
A reference database, such as the Gale Virtual Reference Library or Web of Science, can provide you with an overview of your concept as well as the following:
names of experts on your subject;
terms, phrases, or synonyms that you might use as search terms later;
interesting aspects of the concept that you might want to focus on.
To learn more about conducting research, see Chapter 21.
You may need to read several articles covering your topic to get the information you need. A search engine can also help you get an overview: Enter the word overview or definition with the name of your concept, and skim the top ten search results to get a general sense of your topic. You can bookmark useful links or save a copy. Limiting your results to those from .edu, .gov, or .org domains is more likely to generate reliable results.
Focus your explanation of the concept.
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What interests you most about your topic? What do you think will most interest your readers? The following activities will help you find a way to focus your explanation.
WAYS IN
WHAT MAKES THE CONCEPT INTERESTING TO ME AND MY READERS?
List two or three aspects of your concept that interest you, and then answer these questions:
Why does this aspect interest you?
How is it relevant to your life, family, community, work, or studies?
What do you already know about this aspect of the concept? What would you like to learn about it?
Analyze your AUDIENCE by brainstorming answers to the following questions:
Who are your readers, and in what context will they be reading your explanation?
What are they likely to know about the concept, about related concepts, or about the subject in general? How can you build on what they already know?
How would you answer your readers’ “So what?” question? Think of at least one aspect of the concept that is relevant to their life, family, community, work, or studies.
If you suspect your readers are likely to have faulty assumptions, misunderstandings, or outdated ideas about the concept (or about the subject in general), how can you clarify the concept for them?
Consider WRITING STRATEGIES that will help you explain your concept and why it matters. Write for a few minutes in response to one or more of the following questions:
What is my concept similar to?
What parts or features distinguish it from other concepts?
What are its cultural or historical contexts?
If you find that you don’t have enough to write about, return to the previous section to conduct additional research, broaden your concept by adding cultural or historical contexts, or check sources or class readings to look for broader concepts of which your concept is a part.
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Evaluating Your Focus
Get together with two or three other students to test the way you’ve focused your explanation:
Presenters. Briefly describe your intended audience, identify the aspect of the concept that you will focus on, and explain what you find interesting or relevant about it and what you think your readers will find interesting or relevant. (If your listeners do not find your focus appropriate or interesting, consider returning to your list of possible concepts and repeating the activities above.)
Listeners. Briefly tell the presenter whether the focus sounds appropriate and interesting for the intended audience. Share what you think readers are likely to know about the concept and what information might be especially interesting to them.
Conduct further research on your focused concept.
To learn more about finding and developing sources, see Chapter 21; evaluating your sources, see Chapter 22; citing sources, see Chapter 24 (MLA style) or Chapter 25 (APA style).
Your instructor may expect you to do in-
Draft your working thesis.
An essay explaining a concept is made up of three basic parts:
an opening that will engage readers’ interest
a thesis statement, announcing the concept and its focus, and possibly forecasting the main topics
information about the concept, organized by topic
You may draft a working thesis statement and other parts of your explanation before deciding on an opening your readers will find engaging. If you prefer to sketch out an opening first, however, turn to the section “Write the opening sentences,” and return to this section later.
The thesis statement in a concept explanation announces the concept to be explained and identifies the writer’s focus on the concept. It may also forecast the topics to be explored. Here’s an example of a thesis statement (from “Love: The Right Chemistry”) that successfully announces the concept and the writer’s focus. It also forecasts the topics the writer will cover:
Concept
Focus
O.K., let’s cut out all this nonsense about romantic love. Let’s bring some scientific precision to the party. Let’s put love under a microscope.
Forecast topics
When rigorous people with Ph.D.s after their names do that, what they see is not some silly, senseless thing. No, their probe reveals that love rests firmly on the foundations of evolution, biology and chemistry. (Toufexis, pars. 1–2)
To draft your thesis statement, consider using some of your writing from the Ways In activities in the section “Focus your explanation of the concept.” You may also want to forecast the topics you will cover.
Create an outline that will organize your concept explanation effectively for your readers.
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Once you have drafted a working thesis, you may want to devise a tentative outline drawing on your invention and research notes. An effective outline for a concept explanation should be divided into separate topics that are conceptually parallel. Toufexis, for example, focuses on the scientific foundations of love, and so she divides the topics she will cover into evolution, biology, and chemistry. Once you have decided on your topics, present them in a logical order (for example, from most familiar to least familiar).
Below is a simple outline for an essay explaining a concept, which you may use as a starting point:
Introduction: Attempts to gain readers’ interest in the concept, but may not name the concept immediately.
Thesis: Identifies the concept in a sentence or two; may include a brief definition, an example, or another strategy to clarify the focus, and may forecast topics that will be addressed later.
Background: Social, cultural, historical, or scientific background readers will need to understand the concept.
Topic 1: Any examples, evidence, and explanatory strategies you may use.
Topic 2:
Topic 3 (etc.):
Conclusion: Might summarize information, give advice about how to use or apply the information, or speculate about the future of the concept.
Use your outline to guide your drafting, but do not feel tied to it. You may figure out a better way to sequence your topics as you write.
Design your writing project.
To learn more about designing documents, see Chapter 32.
Consider whether you want to use headings to indicate the topics to be discussed; bullets or numbers to highlight lists; and tables, graphics, or other visuals to make your explanation clearer.
Consider the explanatory strategies you should use.
To explain your concept, consider which strategies would be most useful. Ask questions like these:
How would you define it?
What examples would help your readers understand it?
How is it similar to or different from other related concepts?
How does it happen or get done?
What are its causes or effects?
Keep in mind that your goal is not only to inform your readers but also to engage their interest. The following activities provide sentence strategies you may use to explore the best ways to explain your concept, and they may also help you start drafting your essay.
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WHAT WRITING STRATEGIES CAN I USE TO EXPLAIN MY FOCUSED CONCEPT?
How is the concept DEFINED? What broader class does it belong to, and how does it differ from other members of its class?
X is a/an _______ [principle/theory/idea/condition/phenomenon/process] distinguished by _______ [defining characteristics].
What EXAMPLES or ANECDOTES can make the concept less abstract and more understandable?
Experts/Scientists/The public first became aware of X in [year], when _______ (citation).
Interest in X has been rising/declining because of _______, _______, and _______.
How does this concept COMPARE or CONTRAST with related concepts with which your readers may be more familiar?
Many people think X means _______, but it might be more accurate to say it means _______.
X is similar in some ways to Y. However, unlike Y, X is/has/does _______, _______, and _______.
How can aspects of the concept be CLASSIFIED to make it easier for readers to understand?
Professor A says there are several categories/subtypes/versions of X, including _______, _______, and _______ (citation).
What PROCESS must occur? How does this concept happen, or how does one go about doing it?
To perform X, a person/performer/participant starts by _______. Then he/she/it does _______, _______, and _______. The process ends when _______.
What are this concept’s CAUSES or EFFECTS?
X occurs when _______.
Before X can occur, the following condition[s] must be met: _______.
Experts disagree over the causes of X. Professor Smith, for example, believes _______ (citation). Professor Jones, in contrast, argues _______ (citation).
Use summaries, paraphrases, and quotations from sources to support your points.
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For more about using information from sources to support your own ideas and integrating supporting information into your writing, see Chapter 23.
Summaries, paraphrases, and quotations from sources are frequently used to explain concepts or reinforce an explanation. The Ways In activity below can help you decide when to summarize, paraphrase, or quote.
WAYS IN
WHEN SHOULD I SUMMARIZE, PARAPHRASE, AND QUOTE?
Use SUMMARY to give the gist of a research report or other information.
Recent research suggests that _______ (citation).
Use PARAPHRASE to provide specific details or examples when the language of the source is not especially memorable.
According to Dr. Smith, the most important element to keep in mind is _______ (citation).
Use QUOTATION to capture language that is particularly vivid, clear, or technical; to convey an expert’s voice; or to discuss the source’s choice of words.
Professor Y recently noted that “_______” (citation).
Remember that in academic writing projects, you will need to cite the sources of all summaries, paraphrases, and quotations. In most cases, use signal phrases (Professor Y explained) so you can provide context for source information and in-
Your readers will want you to explain how the ideas from the sources you cite reinforce the points you are making. So comment on sources, making the relationship between your own ideas and the supporting information from sources absolutely clear.
Use visuals or multimedia illustrations.
Concept explanation essays do not require illustrations, but they can be an effective tool. The medium in which your concept explanation appears will determine the types of illustrations you can use. For example, papers can include visual images such as photographs and flowcharts. Web pages can include music, film clips, and animated graphs. Oral presentations can use the Web or presentation slides (such as PowerPoint) with still or moving images and sound files embedded in the slides.
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When deciding whether to include illustrations, consider the following:
Can you create your own graphics (for example, using spreadsheet software to create bar graphs or pie charts)?
Will you need to borrow materials that others have created (for example, downloading materials from the Internet, taking screenshots from Web sites or DVDs, or scanning visuals from books or magazines)? Note: Borrowed material must be cited, including the sources of data you use to create graphs and tables.
Will your writing be published on a Web site that is not password protected? If so, you may also need to obtain permission from the source.
Use appositives to integrate sources.
When you write your essay, you’ll have to tell readers about the credentials of experts you quote, paraphrase, and summarize. Instead of providing this information in separate sentences, you can use an appositive to embed this information smoothly and clearly into another sentence.
An appositive is a noun or pronoun that, along with modifiers, gives more information about another noun or pronoun. Here is an example from one of the reading selections earlier in the chapter:
Noun
Appositive
“Love is a natural high,” observes Anthony Walsh, author of The Science of Love: Understanding Love and Its Effects on Mind and Body. (Toufexis, par. 10)
By placing the credentials right after the expert’s name, these sentences provide readers with the information they need, exactly where they need it.
Appositives can also be used for many different purposes, as these examples suggest:
Appositive
Noun
| DEFINE A KEY TERM | Each person carries in his or her mind a unique subliminal guide to the ideal partner, a “love map,”. . . (Toufexis, par. 17) |
| IDENTIFY PEOPLE AND THINGS | Decision fatigue is the newest discovery involving a phenomenon called ego depletion, a term coined by the social psychologist Roy F. Baumeister. . . . (Tierney, par. 6) |
| GIVE EXAMPLES | Despite the risk of serious side effects— nausea, loss of sex drive, seizures— drugs like Zoloft can be a godsend for this group. (Cain, par. 3) |
Notice that the last example uses dashes instead of commas to set off the appositive from the rest of the sentence. Although commas are more common, dashes are often used if the writer wants to give the appositive more emphasis or if the appositive itself contains commas.
Use descriptive verbs in signal phrases to introduce information from sources.
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When introducing quotations, paraphrases, or summaries, writers often use a signal phrase— the source author’s name plus a verb — to alert readers to the fact that they are borrowing someone else’s words or ideas. Often the verb is neutral:
“That is one reason why it feels so horrible when we’re abandoned or a lover dies,” notes Fisher. (Toufexis, par. 13)
“By the end, you could have talked me into anything,” Twenge told her new colleagues. (Tierney, par. 8)
Sometimes, however, the verb may be more descriptive — even evaluative:
“As long as prehistoric females were secretive about their extramarital affairs,” argues Fisher, “they could garner extra resources, life insurance, better genes and more varied DNA for their biological futures. . . .” (Toufexis, par. 8)
The verb argues emphasizes the fact that what is being reported is an interpretation that others may disagree with.
For more about integrating sources into your sentences and constructing signal phrases, see Chapter 23.
As you refer to sources in your concept explanation, choose carefully among a wide variety of precise verbs to introduce your sources. Here are a number of possibilities: suggests, reveals, questions, brings into focus, finds, notices, observes, underscores.
In academic writing, merely mentioning the author’s name in a signal phrase is not sufficient. In most cases, you must also include in-
Write the opening sentences.
Review what you have written to see if you have something that would work to launch your concept explanation, or try out some of these opening strategies:
Begin with a surprising or provocative quotation or aspect of the concept:
O.K., let’s cut out all this nonsense about romantic love. Let’s bring some scientific precision to the party. Let’s put love under a microscope. (Toufexis, par. 1)
Offer an anecdote or example illustrating the concept:
Three men doing time in Israeli prisons recently appeared before a parole board consisting of a judge, a criminologist and a social worker. The three prisoners had completed at least two-
Case 1 (heard at 8:50 a.m.): An Arab Israeli serving a 30-
Case 2 (heard at 3:10 p.m.): A Jewish Israeli serving a 16-
Case 3 (heard at 4:25 p.m.): An Arab Israeli serving a 30-
Start with a concrete example:
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A beautiful woman lowers her eyes demurely beneath a hat. In an earlier era, her gaze might have signaled a mysterious allure. But this is a 2003 advertisement for Zoloft, a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) approved by the FDA to treat social anxiety disorder. “Is she just shy? Or is it Social Anxiety Disorder?” reads the caption, suggesting that the young woman is not alluring at all. She is sick.
But is she? (Cain, pars. 1–2)
Make a comparison or contrast that relates the concept to something readers are likely to know:
Possibly the most destructive natural disaster, short of a large asteroid impact, would be the eruption of a supervolcano. Supervolcanoes are volcanoes that produce eruptions thousands of times the size of ordinary volcanoes. Like hurricanes, volcanoes are measured using an exponential scale, called the Volcanic Explosivity Index, or VEI. (See Fig. 1.) (Potthast, par. 1)
But don’t agonize over the first sentences, because you are likely to discover the best way to begin only after you have written a rough draft.
Draft your explanation.
By this point, you have done a lot of research and writing to
find an interesting focus and develop a working thesis statement;
try out writing strategies that can help you explain your concept;
create an outline for presenting that information;
come up with ways to integrate your sources smoothly;
try out a way to launch your explanation.
Now stitch that material together to create a draft. The next two parts of this Guide to Writing will help you evaluate and improve your draft.