Part 9: SPEAKER’S REFERENCE

• Strive to enlighten (informative intent) rather than to advocate (persuasive intent).
• Use audience analysis to determine information needs.
• Show the audience why the topic is relevant to them.
• Present new and interesting information.
• Look for ways to increase understanding.

• Is it a speech about objects or phenomena—e.g., anything that isn’t human?
• Is it a speech about people—e.g., individuals or groups who have made a difference?
• Is it a speech about an event—e.g., a noteworthy occurrence?
• Is it a speech about a process—e.g., an explanation of how something works, as in a series of steps leading to a product or end result?
• Is it a speech about an issue—e.g., a social problem or matter in dispute?
• Is it a speech about a concept—e.g., an idea, theory, or belief?

• Use definition to clarify.
• Provide descriptions to paint a picture.
• Provide a demonstration.
• Offer an in-depth explanation.

• Use analogies that link concepts to something familiar.
• Demonstrate underlying causes.
• Use visual aids, including models and drawings.

• Consider listeners’ learning styles as part of your audience analysis.
• Offer information in a variety of modes—visually, with sound, with text, and with demonstrations.

• Consult Chapters 12 and 26 for possible organizational patterns to use.

• Influence an audience’s attitudes, beliefs, or understanding of an issue.
• Produce a change in an audience’s behavior.
• Reinforce existing attitudes, beliefs, or behavior.

• Seeking minor rather than major changes.
• Making your message relevant to the audience.
• Showing your listeners how the change you advocate benefits them.
• Establishing credibility with your audience.

• Appeals to logos target the audience’s reasoning about an issue, usually in the form of an argument.
  • The syllogism is a classical form of argument containing a general case, a specific case, and a conclusion; if both cases are true, the conclusion must also be true.
  • The informal syllogism states either a general or specific case, but not both; such an argument can be strong or weak but not absolutely true or false.
• Appeals to pathos target the audience’s emotions about an issue.
  • Speakers evoke emotion using vivid imagery, compelling stories, and repetition and parallelism.
• Appeals to ethos target the audience’s feelings about the speaker’s competence, moral character, and goodwill.
  • Speakers can evoke ethos by knowing the topic well, projecting honesty, and conveying genuine interest in the audience.

• Contemporary approaches to persuasion highlight audience needs and motivations.
• Persuading audience members requires understanding their needs and motivations and showing them how your proposals can fulfill them.
• To encourage audience members to think critically about the message, stress its relevance to them (see elaboration likelihood model of persuasion).
• To change behavior, identify the outcomes audience members expect (through audience analysis) and show them how your proposals will help listeners achieve them (see expectancy value theory).

• Our perceptions of a speaker’s expertise and trustworthiness are key contributors to persuasiveness.
• For speeches that involve a lot of facts and analysis, stress your expertise.
• For speeches that concern matters of a more personal nature, emphasize your commonality with the audience.

• An argument is a stated position, with support for or against an idea or issue.
• The core elements of an argument are claim, evidence, and warrants.
  • A claim makes an assertion about something.
  • Evidence is supporting material that offers proof of the claim.
  • A warrant is a line of reasoning demonstrating the link between claim and evidence.

• Claims of fact address whether something is or is not true, or whether something will or will not happen.
• Claims of value address issues that rely on individual judgment of right and wrong for their resolution.
• Claims of policy propose specific actions or solutions to an issue.

• Secondary sources are a common form of evidence.
  • Secondary sources containing new and credible information can be particularly persuasive to audiences.
  • Offering evidence related to audience needs and values is often most persuasive.
• The speaker’s own knowledge is also a form of evidence
  • In general, offer your own expertise in conjunction with other forms of evidence.

• You can appeal to the audience’s needs and emotions with a motivational warrant.
• You can appeal to the audience members’ beliefs about the credibility of a source as the basis of their accepting some evidence with an authoritative warrant.
• You can appeal to the audience members’ beliefs about the reliability of factual evidence as the basis of their accepting some evidence with a substantive warrant.
  • Use causal reasoning (“warrants by cause”) when offering a cause-effect relationship as proof of the claim.
• Use reasoning by analogy (“warrants by analogy”) when the topic allows you to compare two similar cases and infer that what is true in one case is true in the other.

• One-sided messages ignore opposing claims; two-sided messages mention them.
  • Generally it is best to acknowledge and adequately refute opposing claims.
• In most instances, plan on refuting major counterclaims to your position.

• Avoid begging the question, or using circular reasoning to state an argument in such a way that it cannot help but be true.
• Do not rely on popular opinion as evidence that your claim is true (bandwagoning).
• Avoid framing your argument as an either-or proposition (either-or fallacy).
• Avoid ad hominem arguments that attack an opponent instead of attacking the opponent’s arguments.
• Avoid relying on irrelevant information to argue your point (red herring fallacy).
• Avoid using an isolated instance to make an unwarranted general conclusion (hasty generalization).
• Avoid offering conclusions that do not connect to your reasoning (non sequitur).
• Avoid claiming that something is true by stating that one example or case will inevitably lead to a series of events or actions (slippery slope).
• Avoid asking audiences to accept a claim based merely on common practice, or ”the way things have always been” (appeal to tradition).

• Choose a pattern that will work with the nature of your claim—of fact, value, or policy.
• Choose a pattern that will help you elicit the reaction you seek from your audience (your specific speech purpose).
• Choose a pattern that will help you appeal to the attitudes of your target audience.

• Define the problem and offer a solution (problem-solution).
• Define the problem, cite reasons for the problem, and offer a solution (problem-cause-solution).

• Step 1: Attention—address listeners’ core concerns.
• Step 2: Need—show listeners they have a need or problem that must be satisfied or solved.
• Step 3: Satisfaction—introduce the solution to the problem.
• Step 4: Visualization—provide a vision of outcomes associated with the solution.
• Step 5: Action—make a direct request of listeners.

• Organize points to favorably compare your position to alternatives.
• Acknowledge familiar alternatives to the problem supported by opposing interests, and then stress your own position.
• Conclude by offering brief but compelling evidence demonstrating the unique advantages of your option over competing ones.

• State the opposing claim.
• Explain the ramifications of the opposing claim.
• Present your argument and the evidence.
• Show the superiority of your claim through contrast.

• Is it to entertain the audience?
• Is it to celebrate or recognize a person, a place, or an event?
• Is it to commemorate a person or an event?
• Is it to inspire your listeners?

• Special occasion speeches include speeches of introduction, speeches of acceptance, award presentations, roasts and toasts, eulogies and other speeches of tribute, after-dinner speeches, and speeches of inspiration.

• Establish the speaker’s credibility by describing relevant facts about his or her background and qualifications for speaking.
• Briefly describe the speaker’s topic and establish its relevance to the audience.
• Keep your remarks brief.
• As the speaker, briefly acknowledge and thank the person who introduced you.

• If you know that you are to receive an award or suspect that you may be honored, prepare the speech in advance.
• Express yourself genuinely and with humility.
• Let the audience know what the award means to you.
• Thank each of the individuals or organizations involved in giving you the award.
• Acknowledge others who helped you attain the achievement.

• Explain what the award represents.
• Explain why the recipient is receiving the award.

• For a roast, prepare a humorous tribute to the person.
• For a toast, pay brief tribute to the person or event.
• Prepare your remarks in advance.
• Rehearse any jokes in advance.
• Keep within your time limits.

• Stay in control of your emotions.
• Refer to each family member of the deceased by name.
• Focus on the person’s life rather than on the circumstances of death.
• Emphasize the person’s positive qualities.

• Begin by recognizing the occasion and linking it to your theme.
• When addressing serious issues and causes, keep an eye on the audience’s comfort level.

• Seek to arouse the audience’s better instincts.
• Focus on creating positive speaker ethos (see Chapter 5).
• Appeal to the audience’s emotions through vivid descriptions and emotionally charged words. Consider the use of repetition, alliteration, and parallelism (see Chapter 16).
• Consider using real-life stories and examples.
• Strive for a dynamic delivery style.
• Clearly establish your speech goal.
• Make your conclusion strong.