| Atoms consist of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
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| Electrons occupy regions of space called orbitals.
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| Elements have recurring, or periodic, chemical properties.
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| 2.2 Molecules and Chemical Bonds
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| A covalent bond results when two atoms share electrons.
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| A polar covalent bond is characterized by unequal sharing of electrons.
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| An ionic bond forms between oppositely charged ions.
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| A chemical reaction involves breaking and forming chemical bonds.
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| 2.3 Water: The Medium of Life
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| Water is a polar molecule.
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| A hydrogen bond is an interaction between a hydrogen atom and an electronegative atom.
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| Hydrogen bonds give water many unusual properties.
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| pH is a measure of the concentration of protons in solution.
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| 2.4 Carbon: Lifeâs Chemical Backbone
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| Carbon atoms form four covalent bonds.
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| Carbon-based molecules are structurally and functionally diverse.
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| Functional groups add chemical character to carbon chains.
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| Proteins are composed of amino acids.
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| Nucleic acids encode genetic information in their nucleotide sequence.
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| Complex carbohydrates are made up of simple sugars.
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| Lipids are hydrophobic molecules.
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| 2.6 Case 1: How Did the Molecules of Life Form?
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| The building blocks of life can be generated in the laboratory.
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| Experiments show how lifeâs building blocks can form macromolecules.
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