Page numbers followed by “f” indicate figures.

Page numbers followed by “t” indicate tables.

G protein–coupled receptors (GPCRs), 675

adenylyl cyclase activation or inhibition by, 699–707

calcium levels and, 708–716

CREB transcription factor and, 705f

effector protein activation and, 689f

G protein activation and, 690

general structure, 686–687, 687f

ion channel regulation by, 693–698

ligand binding to, 688f

ligand-activated, 689–691

MAP kinase and, 746

as neurotransmitter receptors, 1048

olfactory, 1067f

orphan, 692

pharmaceutically important human, 687t

signal suppression, 706–707, 707f

structure and mechanism of, 686–693

as taste receptors, 1064–1066

G proteins

activation of and regulation by, 691–693

classes of mammalian, 692t

heterotrimeric, 678, 689–691

trimeric, 454

G₁ CDKs, 882, 883

G₁ cyclins, 884

G₁ phase, 19, 875, 881

loss of regulation of, 1164–1165

G₁/S phase CDKs, 882, 883, 890

G₁/S phase cyclins, 884, 885

G₁/S phase transition, 888, 888f, 889

G₂ phase, 19, 875

GABA. See Gamma-amino butyric acid

G-actin, 779–780, 780f, 783f, 789, 790f

GAGs. See Glycosaminoglycans

Gain of function, 225, 1149, 1151

Gal4, 381–382, 383f

Galactose, 48f, 479

G_αs, 699–701, 701f

Gametes, 976

in fertilization, 977, 978f, 979

fusion of, 977, 979

Gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA), 1048, 1051, 1052f

γ-secretase, 762–763

γ-tubulin ring complex (γ-TuRC), 825, 826f

Ganglion mother cell (GMC), 1010f

Gangliosides, 278

GAP. See GTPase-activating protein

Gap junctions, 932, 932f, 942, 943f, 944, 1031, 1060

Gastric cancer, 725

Gated channels, 476, 497. See also Voltage-gated channels

Gaucher’s disease, 561

GBS. See Guillain-Barré syndrome

GCN2 eIF2 kinase, 455

G-CSG. See Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor

GDI. See Guanine nucleotide dissociation inhibitor

GDNF. See Glia-derived neurotrophic factor

GDP-β-tubulin, 828–829, 829f

GEF. See Guanine nucleotide exchange factor

Gel electrophoresis, 246

Gel filtration chromatography, 110f, 111

Gel-shift assay. See Electrophoretic mobility shift assay

Gelsolin, 785

Geminin, 892

GenBank, 324

Gene complementation, 304

Gene control, 355

Gene expression, 168

cloned DNA molecules in studying, 246–253

cohesins and, 895

control in bacteria, 356–362

eukaryotic control, 363–370

heterochromatin silenced by, 390–391, 393

long-term memory formation and, 1074–1075

promoter-proximal elements regulating, 378–379

regulation of, 353

TGF-β and, 1162, 1162f

Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO), 411

Gene family, 306

Gene knockout, 261, 262f, 263f

Gene position, 232–233, 233f

Gene tagging, 242–243, 243f

General import pore, 611

I-14

General transcription factors, 373–376

Genes, 8. See also specific genes

activation during cellular differentiation, 395–396

in cancer onset, 1150t

chromosomal organization of, 309–312

conditional mutations in studying, 227–228

coordinately regulated, 357

co-regulated, 248–249, 250f

density in eukaryotes, 307f, 309

dominant-negative alleles inhibiting, 262–264, 265f

duplicated, 303–306, 304f

exons and duplication of, 303, 304f

experimentally regulated promoters controlling, 260–261

histone acetylation directed at, 394–395

histone deacetylation directed at, 393–394

human disease, 254–259

identifying within sequences, 326

immunoglobulin, 1116–1118

inactivating function of specific, 259–268

inactivating with somatic cell recombination, 261–262

insertion mutation tagging, 242–243, 243f

knockout of, 261

nonprotein-coding, 308–309, 308t

organization differences in prokaryotes and eukaryotes, 179, 180f

protein-coding, 176–182

recombination in mapping, 233

replacing with homologous recombination, 260, 260f

sequencing, 243–244, 244f, 245f

solitary, 305

structure in eukaryotes, 303–309

structure of, 302f

studying by analyzing mutations, 224–233

tandemly repeated, 307–308

TCR, 1116–1118

Genetic code, 8, 183–185, 184t, 185f, 185t

Genetic diseases, 28–29. See also specific diseases and disorders

mtDNA mutations and, 528

X-linked, 547

Genetic linkage, 232

Genetic map unit, 233

Genetic mapping studies, 232–233

Genetic markers, 233

Genetic recombination, 203, 232

Genetic screens, 227–228

Genetic suppression, 231–232, 232f

Genome editing, 266, 267f, 268, 1158

Genome maintenance genes, 1135, 1150t, 1167

Genome maintenance pathways, deregulation in cancer, 1163–1168

Genomes, 14, 25

completely sequenced, 11t

intergenic DNA in, 312

mitochondrial, 525–526

nonfunctional DNA in, 309–310

number of protein-coding genes in, 326–327, 326f

Genome-wide association study (GWAS), 258–259

Genomic DNA

gene identification within sequences, 326

isolation of segments of, 241–242, 242f

retroposed RNAs in, 321

Genomic libraries, 237–238, 238f

Genomics, 24–25, 302, 323–327

Genotype, 224

GEO. See Gene Expression Omnibus

Gephyrin, 1051, 1051f

Germ cells, regulation of formation, 912

Germ line, 990

Germarium, 990

Germ-line stem cells (GSCs), 990

Get3, 597

GFAP. See Glial fibrillary acidic protein

GFP. See Green fluorescent protein

GH. See Growth hormone

Giant green algae, 810, 810f

Gibbs, Josiah Willard, 58

Gibbs free energy, 58

GINS complex, 892

Gleevec, 1158

Glia. See Glial cells

Glia-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), 1159

Glial cells, 985, 986, 1026–1033, 1029–1031

formation of, 1031–1033

gap junctions connecting, 1060

synapse formation and, 1049

types of, 1044–1046, 1044f

Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), 864, 864t, 1032–1033

Gliomedin, 1046

Globin proteins, 79, 79f, 306, 307, 444

Globular proteins, 72–73

Glomeruli, 1067

Glucagon, 687, 688f, 699–700, 766–767

Glucocorticoid receptor (GR), 402, 403f

Glucocorticoid receptor response element (GRE), 400, 401f

Gluconeogenesis, 704

Glucopyranose, 47

Glucoronyltransferase 1, 972

Glucose, 48f, 480

aerobic metabolism of, 519f

allosteric regulation of metabolism of, 518f

anaerobic metabolism of, 519f

blood, 479, 766–767, 767f, 769

cellular uptake of, 478, 478f

diabetes mellitus and, 769

facilitated transport of, 477–483

fermentation of, 518, 520

GLUT-mediated uptake, 478f, 479, 480

import against high concentration gradients, 503–504

insulin and, 769

oxidation of, 514f, 515–516, 533–535, 534f

transport across epithelia, 508–509, 508f

GLUT proteins, 480, 597

GLUT1, 478–479, 479f, 480, 600, 600f

GLUT2, 480, 702

GLUT3 glucose transporter, 479, 480

GLUT4, 480

insulin and, 767, 768f, 769

GLUT4 storage vesicle (GSV), 768f, 769

GLUT5, 480

Glutamate, 44, 488f, 1048, 1052f, 1058–1059

Glutamic acid, 43

Glutamine, 44

Glycine, 44, 1052f

Glycogen, 47, 480, 687

degradation of, 699, 700f

insulin and, 769

regulation of metabolism of, 702–703, 703f

synthesis and degradation of, 699, 700f

Glycogen phosphorylase (GP), 702–703

Glycogen phosphorylase kinase (GPK), 703, 714

Glycogen synthase (GS), 703

Glycogenolysis, 699, 702

epinephrine-induced, 703

second messengers regulating, 714

Glycolipids, 278, 289–290

Glycolysis, 63, 515–520

aerobic, 1138, 1138f

rate of, 516–518

stage I, 516

Glycolytic pathway, 516, 517f, 535t

Glycophorin A, 285f

Glycophorin C, 794

Glycoproteins, 289, 601

membrane, 636f

in plant cell walls, 968–969

Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), 48, 723, 951, 953–956

chain modifications, 954–955

disaccharides of, 954f

Glycosidic bonds, 41

Glycosphingolipids, 295

Glycosylases, 205

Glycosylation, 601

Glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI), 289, 289f, 598–599, 940

Glycosylphosphatidylinositol membrane anchor, 658

Glyoxisomes, 17

GMC. See Ganglion mother cell

Golgi, Camillo, 1070

Golgi complex, 13f, 16, 16f

anterograde transport through, 648–650

cisternal maturation and, 648–650, 650f

N-linked oligosaccharide chains in, 648f

retrograde transport through, 647–648

in secretory pathway, 632, 633f

secretory pathway and, 645–647

sphingolipid synthesis in, 279, 295

targeting to, 585

transport vesicles in, 649f

Golgi stain, 1070, 1071f

Goodpasture’s syndrome, 950

Gout, 830

GP. See Glycogen phosphorylase

I-15

GPCR-arrestin complex, 707

GPCRs. See G protein–coupled receptors

GPI. See Glycosylphosphatidylinositol

GPI anchors, 289

GPI-anchored proteins, 599, 599f

GPK. See Glycogen phosphorylase kinase

GR. See Glucocorticoid receptor

Grafts, 1104–1105

Gram staining, 10

Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF), 249–250, 727, 728, 1157

Granzymes, 1094, 1123, 1123f

GRB2, 741–742, 741f

GRE. See Glucocorticoid receptor response element

Green fluorescent protein (GFP), 112, 146, 252–253, 253f, 364, 634

GroEL, 85, 86f

GroES, 85, 86f

Ground tissue, 968

Group I introns, 429, 466, 466f

Group II introns, 429–430, 430f, 466, 466f

Growth checkpoint pathway, 905

Growth factor signaling pathways, 905

Growth hormone (GH), 727, 729f

GS. See Glycogen synthase

GSCs. See Germ-line stem cells

GSV. See GLUT4 storage vesicle

GTP

hydrolysis of, by dynamin, 653f

hydrolysis of, in chain elongation, 193–194, 193f

noncovalent binding of, 101–102

GTPase, 102, 102f, 263–264, 265f

GTPase superfamily, 195–196, 910

anchor proteins, 289

mitochondrial fusion and fission and, 529

in signal transduction pathways, 677–678, 677f, 678f

switch proteins, 639–641

vesicle formation and, 641

GTPase-activating protein (GAP), 324–325, 454, 625, 625f, 678, 697, 739, 814

effector proteins as, 690

loss-of-function mutation in, 1160

GTP-binding proteins, 686

actin organization and, 813–815

GTP-binding switch, 677–678, 677f, 685f, 686

GTP-hydrolyzing proteins, 588–589

GU-AG rule, 427

Guanine, 45, 46f

Guanine nucleotide dissociation inhibitor (GDI), 641, 678, 689, 814, 903

Guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF), 455, 625, 640, 739, 742

Guanine nucleotide-binding proteins, 102

Guanylate cyclase-activating proteins, 697

Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS), 1045

GWAS. See Genome-wide association study