Page numbers followed by “f” indicate figures.

Page numbers followed by “t” indicate tables.

C₃ pathway, 573

C3 protein, 1085–1086, 1085f

C₄ pathway, 576–578, 577f

C_α. See Alpha carbon atom

Ca²⁺, 437, 437f, 485, 486

in apoptosis, 1022

cytosol concentrations of, 489, 713, 713f

GPCRs and, 708–709

IP₃/DAG pathway and cytosolic, 710, 711f, 712

MAMs and, 532

movement of, 712f

neurotransmitter release and, 1054–1055

plasma-membrane store-operated channel for, 713

responses to hormone-induced rise in, 708, 709t

as second messenger, 679

skeletal muscle contraction and, 805–807, 806f

transport to mitochondrial matrix, 712–713

Ca²⁺ ATPases, 486–489, 487f, 488f, 489f

Ca²⁺ pump, 486–489

Ca²⁺-activated K⁺ channels, 437, 437f

Ca²⁺-calmodulin complex, 713–714

Ca²⁺/NO/cGMP pathway, 714–716, 715f

Cadherins, 924f, 933–938, 965

extracellular domains of, 936

tissue differentiation and, 936

Caenorhabditis elegans, 20f, 24–25, 921, 976

I-5

apoptotic pathway in, 1013–1015, 1013f

cell lineage in, 1005f

Par proteins and, 1003–1006

tubulins in, 823

Cajal bodies, 468–469, 468f

CAK. See CDK-activating kinase

Calcium. See also Ca²⁺

GPCRs and levels of, 708–716

noncovalent binding of, 101–102, 101f

synaptic plasticity and, 1072–1073

Calcium indicators, 1054–1055, 1055f

Calcium ions, 679

Calcium signaling, 532

Callilepis laureola, 558

Calmodulin, 101, 101f, 489, 679, 713–714, 715, 1072

Calnexin, 605

Calories, 58

Calreticulin, 605

Calvin cycle, 573, 574, 575f, 617

CamKIIα, 1072–1073

cAMP. See Adenosine monophosphate

cAMP receptor protein (CRP), 357

cAMP-dependent protein kinase. See Protein kinase A

cAMP-response element (CRE), 705

CAMs. See Cell-adhesion molecules

Cancer. See also Tumors; specific cancers

cell cycle and maintenance pathway deregulation in, 1163–1168

cells, mutations in, 1137

cellular housekeeping in cells of, 1137–1139

diagnosis and treatment, 1157–1158

DNA-repair system loss and, 1166–1168, 1167t

epigenetic changes in development of, 1155

escaping tissue boundaries, 1140

genes in onset of, 1150t

genetic basis of, 1149–1158

genome sequencing, 1157

Hh signaling and, 757

immune system defenses, 1131

incidence of, 1145, 1145f

karyotypes, 1137, 1138f

metabolic pathways, 1137–1139, 1138f

misregulation in, 1159–1163

mTORC1 pathway in, 454

multi-hit model of, 1145–1146

mutations and development of, 1135–1136, 1150f

origins and development of, 1143–1148

p53 gene and, 908

PTEN gene and, 751

Ras proteins and, 739, 1146, 1148, 1155, 1160

signaling pathway aberrations and, 1161–1163

skin, 744

studying development of, 1146–1148, 1148f

telomerase and, 348–349

TGF-β1 and, 722, 725

transcription factors and, 1160–1161

uncontrolled proliferation in, 1139–1140

viruses causing, 1152

Wnt signaling and, 753

Cancer stem cells, 1140–1141

CAP. See Catabolite activator protein

CAP site, 357

Capacitors, 496

Cap-binding complex (CBC), 441

Capping proteins, 785, 785f

Capsaicin, 1062

Capsids, 213

CapZ, 785, 789, 790f

CAR. See Coxsackievirus and adenovirus receptor

Carbohydrates, 46, 578

Carbon dioxide transport, 505–506, 506f

Carbon fixation, 63, 561, 576f

Carbonic acid, 505

Carbonic anhydrase, 505

Carboxy-terminal domain (CTD), 370, 370f, 420–421, 428, 428f

Carcinogens, 1136, 1143, 1144–1145, 1144f

Carcinomas, 1136

hepatocellular, 1141

CARD, 1020f

Cardiac muscle, 504–505, 807, 986

Cardiolipin, 547

Cardiomyocytes, 986

Cargo proteins, 632, 646f

targeting sequences on, 641

Carotenoids, 564

Carriers, 476

Cartilage, 956, 957f

Cas genes, 266, 267f

Cas9, 266, 267f

Caspase-1, 1126

Caspase-8, 1021–1022

Caspases, 1015, 1018

Catabolism, 63, 516

Catabolite activator protein (CAP), 357. See also cAMP receptor protein

Catalase, 17, 619

Catalysts, 52, 90

enzymes as, 90–91, 90f, 91f, 93f

protein-folding, 606–607

Catalytic RNA, 466

Catalytic site, 91

Cataracts, 944

Catecholamines, 1052f

Cation antiporter, 504

CBC. See Cap-binding complex; Nuclear cap-binding complex

CBP. See CREB binding protein

CBP/P300, 705

CD4, 1121–1122

CD8, 1121–1123

CD44, 956

cdc mutants, 228, 229f, 878, 881

Cdc14, 902, 902f

Cdc14 phosphatase, 910

Cdc25, 896, 896f

inhibition of, 906

Cdc42, 813–816, 816f, 867–868, 868f, 1007

cell asymmetry and, 1006

cell polarity and, 1003, 1004f

intrinsic polarity program and, 1000–1002, 1001f

Cdc45-Sld3 complex, 892

CDK inhibitors (CKIs), 886–887, 904

CDK2, 884f

CDK-activating kinase (CAK), 886

CDKs. See Cyclin-dependent kinases

cDNA libraries, 238–239, 240f

cDNAs. See Complementary DNAs

CDRs. See Complementarity-determining regions

C/EBPα, 770, 771f

CED-3, 1013–1015, 1018, 1020f

ced-3 gene, 1013–1014, 1013f

CED-3 protease, 1014, 1015f

CED-4, 1013–1015, 1018, 1020f

CED-9, 1013–1015, 1017, 1017f

ced-9 gene, 1013–1014

Celexa, 34

Cell asymmetry, 1006

Cell attachments, breaking, 812

Cell body, 1027

Cell cortex, 778

Cell cultures

establishment of, 131, 131f

primary, 131–132

tissue, 880

Cell cycle

CDKs controlling, 876, 883f

commitment to, 887–895

deregulation in cancer of, 1163–1168

DNA damage response system halting, 806f, 905–908

DNA replication initiation in, 890–891, 891f, 892–893, 893f

eukaryotic cells, 18–19, 19f, 873–874, 874f, 904f

extracellular signals and entry to, 889–890

key principles of, 876

mammal regulation of, 880

model organisms and methods of study of, 877–881

phases of, 874f, 875–876

proteins in, 21–22

surveillance mechanisms in regulation of, 904–911

Cell death

apoptosis, 1012–1013, 1012f

programmed, 906, 977, 1011, 1011f, 1012–1013, 1012f

regulated, 1011–1022

Cell division

asymmetric, 27, 903, 975, 976f, 1002f

cell polarization before, 1002–1003, 1002f

eukaryotic cell regulation of, 18–19, 19f

symmetric, 975, 976f

Cell exterior, targeting to, 585

Cell fates, 977

cell location and, 980f

Cell junctions, 923, 924

types of, 932–933, 932f, 933t

I-6

Cell lineage, 975, 976f, 1005f

Cell lines, 132

HeLa, 132, 468f, 881f

Cell locomotion, 811–812, 812f, 813f

Cell membrane, 5f

Cell migration, 811–817, 867–868

Cell polarity, 776, 776f, 1000–1010

cell division and, 1002–1003, 1002f

Cell signaling, 674f

Cell strains, 131

Cell walls

in bacteria, 10

of eukaryotic cells, 13f

plant, 968–969, 968f

plant cell mitosis and, 860

rigid, 968

Cell-adhesion molecules (CAMs), 24, 131, 603, 922f, 923–925, 925f, 928f

evolution of, 928–929

families of, 924f

mechanotransduction and, 929

Cell-attached patch clamping, 500f

Cell-body translocation, 812

Cell-cell adhesive interactions, 922f, 925f

Cell-ECM adhesions, 938–939

Cell-free assay, 610, 610f

Cell-free protein synthesis, 587, 587f

Cell-free translocation, 612

Cell-free transport assays, 637–638, 637f

Cell-matrix adhesive interactions, 922f

Cells

ABC proteins exporting toxins from, 491–493

ancestral, 2f

biomembranes and types of, 276f

blood, 4f

chemical building blocks of, 41–51, 42f

chemical reactions in, 52–53

cytokines influencing development of, 727

endothelial, 931

energy transformation in, 58

epithelial, 775–776, 776f

excitable, 1027

lipid storage in, 283, 283f

lipid uptake by, 659–660

mast, 1087

memory, 1123

mesenchymal, 936

migrating, 776f

organelle release from, 162

pancreas, 18f

postmitotic, 876

splitting duplicated, 859–860

variety of, 4f

Cell-substratum adhesions, 811–812

Cell-surface receptors, 674

affinity for ligands, 681–682, 682f

binding assays for detecting, 681–682

master transcription factors and, 721

purification with affinity chromatography, 683–684

signal sensitivity and, 683

studying, 681–686

types of, 720f

Cellular communication, 673

Cellular differentiation

DNase I hypersensitive sites and, 398, 399f, 400

gene activation during, 395–396

Cellular membranes, 9, 9f, 473

in eukaryotes, 271, 272f

faces of, 275, 275f, 276f

water permeability of, 481–483

Cellular oxidative stress, 548

Cellular respiration, 63

Cellulose, 968–969

Cellulose synthase, 969

Centimorgan, 233

Central dogma, 168

Central nervous system, 1026, 1044

Centralspindlin, 859

Centrifugation, 106, 107f

density-gradient, 124f, 163f

organelle separation, 162, 163f

Centrioles, 825, 897

Centromeres, 329, 345, 853

of S. pombe, 346–347

of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, 346–347, 346f

sequences length and complexity, 345–347

Centromeric heterochromatin, 311

Centrosome disjunction, 850, 898

Centrosomes, 825, 826f, 897

duplication of, 849–850, 849f

Cervical cancer, 218, 1130

CFI. See Cleavage factor I

CFII. See Cleavage factor II

CFTR. See Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator protein

CFU-E. See Colony-forming units-erythroid

cGAS, 1085

cGMP. See Cyclic guanosine monophosphate

cGMP phosphodiesterase (PDE), 695, 699f, 705, 706f

Chain elongation, 193–195, 193f, 428, 428f

Chance, Britton, 546

Channel-inactivating segment, 1036, 1042–1043

Channels, 475f, 476. See also Ion channels; specific channels

gated, 476, 497

half, 556

piezo, 1063, 1064f

Chaperones, 82–83, 328, 591

BiP, 591–592

mitochondrial protein import and, 610

protein folding mediated by, 83–85, 84f, 604–606, 605f

protein folding promoted by, 82–86

Chaperonins, 83, 85–86, 86f

Chara, 810

Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease, 944, 1045

subtype 2A, 529

Checkpoint pathways, 874, 876, 904, 905, 1149

growth, 905

spindle assembly, 856–857, 908–909, 908f

spindle position, 909–911, 909f

Chemical adducts, 206–207

Chemical bond energy, 32f

Chemical building blocks, 32f

of cells, 41–51, 42f

Chemical defenses, 1083–1084

Chemical equilibrium, 32f, 51–57, 52, 53f

Chemical libraries, 137–138

Chemical potential energy, 57

Chemical reactions, 51–57

in cells, 52–53

in equilibrium, 52

time dependence, 52f

Chemical synapses, 1060

Chemiluminescence, 112

Chemiosmosis, 514, 552f

Chemiosmotic coupling, 514

Chemiosmotic hypothesis, 551, 553

Chemokines, 1087, 1124

Chemotactic signals, 1086, 1124

Chemotaxis, 816–817, 817f

Chemotherapy, 1157

Chiasmata, 912, 915f

nondisjunction and, 916

Chimeric proteins, 130, 612–613, 612f

Chiral carbon atoms, 34

Chirality, 34

Chironomus tentans, 442, 443f

Chk1, 906

Chk2, 906, 908

Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, 20f, 22, 570, 572, 845, 846f, 847, 1046, 1046f

Chloramphenicol, 527

Chloride channels, 510, 510f

Chlorophylls, 560, 563f

Chloroplasts, 13f, 18, 514, 524f, 569f

ATP synthesis in, 552–553

DNA in, 523, 560–561

photosystems in, 567–568

protein import, 617, 618f

protein targeting to, 608–617

structure of, 561f

thylakoid membranes in, 560

Cholera, 692, 942

Cholesterol, 39–40, 50, 277f, 278, 280

biosynthetic pathway, 295–296, 295f

clustering with proteins, 282–283

regulation of levels of, 763–766

SCAP binding, 765

SREBP activation and, 765, 765f

synthesis and intracellular movement, 293–297

transport mechanisms, 296–297, 296f

Cholesterol esters, 50

Chromatids, 341

bi-oriented, 897

crossing over, 912

middle prophase, 339

sister, 15f, 851, 875, 893, 894f, 895, 899, 913

Chromatin, 302, 327, 392f

condensation of, 354, 364

condensed, 356f, 391, 393, 395f

I-7

conservation of structure, 329

decondensation of, 364, 394, 395, 395f

DHS patterns in, 398

eukaryotic transcription regulation and, 364

forms of, 328–329, 328f

histone tail modification and, 330–335

loops of, 335–339, 335f

nuclear lamina and, 865, 866f

nucleosome structure and, 328

30-nm fiber, 328–329, 330f

Chromatin immunoprecipitation, 373, 374f, 376

Chromatin-mediated repression, 390

Chromatin-remodeling complexes, 395, 1155

Chromium release assay, 1106f

Chromodomain, 333

Chromogenic enzyme reactions, 111

Chromogranin A, 655

Chromogranin B, 655

Chromonema fiber, 339

Chromoshadow domain, 333

Chromosomal passenger complex (CPC), 855–857, 858f, 859, 899

Chromosomal translocations, 1151

Chromosome painting, 341–342, 342f

evolution revealed by, 342–343, 343f

Chromosomes, 14, 15f, 169. See also Metaphase chromosomes; X chromosome

aligning duplicate, 854–855, 855f

capture and orientation, 853–854, 855f

compaction, 900, 900f

condensation, 340f, 899–900

conformation capture, 336–337, 338f

congression, 854, 855f

elements for replication and stable inheritance, 345, 346f

evolution of primate, 342–343, 344f

gene organization in, 309–312

homologous, 912

interphase, 335, 335f, 343–345, 345f

interphase territories, 336, 337f

mitotic spindle attachment, 898, 898f

morphology and functional elements of eukaryotic, 341–349

movement to poles, 857–858, 857f

Philadelphia, 1156, 1156f

polytene, 343–345

in prometaphase, 853–854

reassortment, 911

replication, 874, 875

segregation, 874, 899–900, 901

shortening of, 347, 348f

structural organization of eukaryotic, 327–340

structure of, 302f

telomeres preventing shortening of, 347–349

topological domains within territories, 336–339

Chromothripsis, 1137

Chronic bronchitis, 683

Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), 1155, 1158

Chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML), 1156–1157

Chronic progressive external ophthalmoplegia, 528

Cigarette smoking, 1144, 1144f

Cilia, 12, 276, 844–849

beating, 844–845, 846f

primary, 757, 847–848, 848f

structure of, 845f

Ciliated epithelium, 14f

Cimetidine, 687t

Circulating tumor cells, 1142

Circulatory system, 1082f

Circumferential belt, 807

cis-Golgi, 649

cis-Golgi cisterna, 632, 633f, 635

cis-Golgi network, 646–647, 647f

Cisternae, 16, 632

Cisternal maturation, 648–650, 650f

Cistrons, 303

Citalopram, 34

Citric acid cycle, 516, 532–536

CKIs. See CDK inhibitors

Clamp domain, 369, 369f

Clamp loader, 201

CLASPs, 831

Class C rhinoviruses (RV-C), 936–937

Class I MHC molecules, 1105–1107, 1107f

antigen processing and presentation pathway, 1110–1112, 1110f

polypeptide antigen binding, 1108–1109

Class II MHC molecules, 1105–1107, 1107f

antigen processing and presentation pathway, 1112–1115, 1112f

polypeptide antigen binding, 1109

Class switching, 1102–1103, 1103f

Classical cadherins, 933, 934–937, 935f

Classical genetics, 223

Classical pathway, 1085, 1085f

Clathrin, 163, 646, 651–652

coat structure, 652

dynamin and, 652–653, 652f

Clathrin-coated vesicles, 638

Claudin, 940

Claudin-1, 942

claudin14 gene, 941

Cleavage

autoproteolytic, 1014

of cohesins, 901, 901f

of mammalian embryo, 979

of pre-mRNAs, 430–432, 431f

3′, 419, 430–432, 431f

Cleavage and polyadenylation specificity factor (CPSF), 430, 452

Cleavage factor I (CFI), 430

Cleavage factor II (CFII), 430

Cleavage furrow, 859, 903

Cleavage stimulatory factor (CStF), 430

Cleavage/polyadenylation complex, 431

Cl⁻/HCO₃⁻ antiporter, 506, 506f

CLL. See Chronic lymphocytic leukemia

Clonal selection theory, 1091, 1092f

Cloned DNA molecules

disease genes in, 257

sequencing, 243–244, 244f, 245f

studying gene expression with, 246–253

Clones, 129

genes, protein production from, 250–251, 250f

viral, 213

Cloning, 236–237

animal, 983

differentiation reversal and, 983

DNA, 234–244

plasmid vectors, 236–237

Clotting factor IX, 321

Clozapine, 687t

Cluster analysis, 248–249, 250f

CMC. See Critical micelle concentration

CML. See Chronic myelogenous leukemia

CO₂, 505–506, 506f, 509

erythrocyte transport of, 506–507

metabolism in photosynthesis, 573–578, 575f

CoA. See Coenzyme A

Co-activators, 386, 387f, 395, 705

Coated pit, 16

Coated vesicles, 638, 639–641, 639t

Coatomers, 647

CoATs. See Cohesin acetyltransferases

Cocaine, 1057

Cochlear K⁺ channel, 438

Cockayne syndrome, 376

Codons, 181f, 183

to amino acids, 184, 184f

anticodon, 183, 186, 187f, 188

in nonstandard base pairing, 186, 187f, 188

start (initiation), 184, 190–191

stop (termination), 184, 195

Coenzyme A (CoA), 293, 533, 534f

Coenzyme Q (CoQ), 541, 541f, 542f

Coenzymes, 63, 95

Cofactor, 95

Cofilin, 784–785, 789, 790f

Cognate proteins, 380

Cohesin acetyltransferases (CoATs), 894f

Cohesins, 849, 893, 894f, 895, 913, 915f

cleavage of, 901, 901f

dissociation of, 900

in meiosis, 915–916, 915f

in mitosis, 915f

nondisjunction and, 916

Co-immunoprecipitation (Co-IP), 113f, 114

Coincidence detection, 788

Co-IP. See Co-immunoprecipitation

Colchicine, 137, 829–830

Collagenases, 1084

Collagens, 925, 945, 946f, 959f

fibrillar, 951–952, 952f

triple helix, 948, 949f

type I, 952–953

type II, 952–953

type IV, 945, 948–950, 949f

types of, 948t

Collapsed replication fork, 209–210, 210f

I-8

Colon cancer, 205–206, 725, 753, 1146, 1167

Colony-forming units-erythroid (CFU-E), 728f

Colorectal cancer, 1147f

Combinatorial diversity, 938

Combinatorial transcription regulation, 387–388, 388f

Commensal bacteria, 1081, 1083

Common cold, 936

Compacted morula, 979

Compaction, 979

of chromosomes, 900, 900f

Compartment-specific oligosaccharide modifications, 635, 636f

Complement system, 1085–1086, 1085f

Complementarity-determining regions (CDRs), 89, 90f, 1093

Complementary, 171

Complementary DNAs (cDNAs), 239

cloned gene protein production with, 250–251, 250f

Complementary matching, 8

Complementation tests, 229–230, 230f

Concentration gradient, 58

glucose and amino acid import against, 503–504

Condensin, 339, 340f, 900

Conditional mutations, 227–228, 878

Cone cells, 694, 1061

Confocal microscopy, 147–149, 148f, 149f

Conformations, 67

Congestive heart failure, 505

Connective tissue, 921, 951–960, 959f

Connexins, 942, 943f, 944

Connexons, 942, 943f, 944

Constant regions, 1092, 1094–1095

Constitutive expression, 383

Constitutive secretion, 632

Constitutive transport element (CTE), 444

Contact sites, 613

Contractile bundles, 807

Contractile ring, 778, 859, 903

Contractile vacuoles, 481

Control regions, 364, 365f, 366–367

Convergent evolution, 997

Convergent neural circuits, 1029, 1030f

Coomassie blue, 112

Cooperative DNA binding, 388, 389f

Cooperativity, 100, 101f

Coordinate expression, 179

Coordinately regulated genes, 357

Co-oriented sister chromatids, 913

Co-oriented sister kinetochores, 917

COPI vesicles, 638, 645

COPII vesicles, 638, 640, 640f, 645–647

CoQ. See Coenzyme Q

CoQH₂-cytochrome c reductase, 542, 544

Co-receptors, 942, 1122–1123

Co-regulated genes, 248–249, 250f

Co-repressor proteins, 387, 393

Cortical granules, 979

co-Smads, 724

Co-transcriptional processing, 419

Cotranslational translocation, 588–589, 589f

Cotransport, 502–507

Cotransporters, 476, 477t

cytosolic pH regulation by, 505–506

Covalent bonds, 33–40

defining, 33, 33f

equal or unequal sharing in, 34–36

relative energies, 36, 36f

strength of, 36

Covalently attached lipids, 288–289

coxII gene, 526

Coxsackievirus and adenovirus receptor (CAR), 940

CPC. See Chromosomal passenger complex

CPE. See Cytoplasmic polyadenylation element

CPEB. See CPE-binding protein

CPE-binding protein (CPEB), 451

CpG island promoters, 372–373

CpG islands, 372

CPSF. See Cleavage and polyadenylation specificity factor

Crambin, 38f

CRE. See cAMP-response element

CREB. See CRE-binding protein

CREB binding protein (CBP), 386, 387f, 395

CREB protein, 386, 387f

CRE-binding protein (CREB), 705, 705f

Crick, Francis, 7, 170

CRISPR, 266

CRISPR-Cas9, 266, 267f, 268, 1158

Crista junction, 522

Cristae, 18, 522

Critical cell size, 889, 905

Critical concentration, 782

Critical micelle concentration (CMC), 291

Crohn’s disease, 1141

Cross-bridge cycle, 804

Cross-exon recognition complex, 428

Cross-linking proteins, 793, 794f

Cross-presentation, 1111

CRP. See cAMP receptor protein

Crumbs complex, 1007

Cryoelectron microscopy, 119, 120f, 121, 160–161

Cryoelectron tomography, 160, 160f

Crypts, 991, 991f, 993f, 994f

CStF. See Cleavage stimulatory factor

CTD. See Carboxy-terminal domain

CTE. See Constitutive transport element

CTLA4, 1131

CTLs. See Cytotoxic T cells

Culturing, 129

biological processes studied with, 136

ES cells, 981f

media and surfaces for, 130–131

in vivo environment mimicked by, 133–135

Cyanide, 546

Cyanobacteria, 10

Cyanopindolol, 687, 688f

Cyclic electron flow, 568f, 570–571, 571f

Cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP), 695–696, 696f

Cyclic photophosphorylation, 570–571

Cyclin D, 1164

Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs), 202, 722, 874, 888, 1164

activity regulation, 882–887, 882f

cell cycle control by, 876, 883f

cyclins and activity of, 884–885

fluctuation of, 876

genetically engineered, 887

nomenclature, 883, 883t

phosphorylation, 883, 886

regulators of activity of, 885–886, 885t

roles of, 883t

Cyclins, 100, 874, 890f, 1164

CDK activity and, 884–885

regulators of activity of, 885–886, 885t

Cycloheximide, 527

Cyclosome, 886

Cyclosporine, 1120

Cysteine, 44

Cystic fibrosis, 255, 255f, 261, 494, 494f, 646

Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator protein (CFTR), 485, 494, 494f, 646

Cytochalasin D, 791–792

Cytochrome c, 1018

Cytochrome c oxidase, 542, 545–546, 549, 549f

Cytochrome P-450 enzymes, 1143

Cytochromes, 540–541, 567

Cytokeratins, 863

Cytokine receptors, 726–733, 727f

binding to, 728–730, 729f

down-regulation of signaling from, 731–733, 733f

Cytokines, 727, 1086, 1087

binding to receptors, 728–730, 729f

HSC regulation by, 994

inflammatory, 758

T cells production of, 1123–1124

Cytokinesis, 778, 807f, 859–860, 876

daughter cells created by, 903

Cytoplasm, 8

mRNA degradation in, 445–447, 446g

post-transcription control mechanisms, 445–460

Cytoplasmic dense bodies, 864

Cytoplasmic dynein, 838

Cytoplasmic inheritance, 524, 525f

Cytoplasmic mRNPs, 419

Cytoplasmic poly(A)-binding protein (PABPC/PABPC1), 195, 451

Cytoplasmic polyadenylation, 451–452, 452f

Cytoplasmic polyadenylation element (CPE), 451

Cytoplasmic sorting signals, 642t

Cytoplasmic streaming, 810, 810f

Cytosine, 45, 46f

Cytoskeletal fibers, 13f

Cytoskeletal filaments, 14f

Cytoskeletal proteins, 7

Cytoskeleton, 271, 777, 777f, 778f

actin, 815f

coordination and cooperation between elements of, 867–868

I-9

of epithelial cells, 776f

functions of, 12

Cytosol

Ca²⁺ concentrations, 489, 713, 713f

calcium concentrations in, 709

cholesterol synthesis in, 295–296

membrane protein N-terminus in, 597–598

misfolded protein degradation in, 607–608

muscle relaxation and, 486

NAD⁺ and NADH concentrations, 535–536, 536f

pH regulation, 485, 505–506

plasmodesmata connecting, 969–970, 970f

unassembled protein subunits degradation in, 607–608

Cytosolic face, 275

Cytosolic leaflets, 281–282

Cytosolic proteins, 99–100

autophagic pathway transporting, 667–669

lysosomes receiving, 667–669

nuclear transport and, 624f

Cytotoxic T cells (CTLs), 1104, 1105, 1106f

CD8 co-receptor and, 1122–1123

cell killing by, 1123f